Cell Physiology

Cell Membranes, Transport Across Cell

Membranes, Osmosis, Membrane Potentials
Lectured by Bien Nillos, MD
The Cell Membrane
 Lipid Bilayer
 Phospholipids – hydrophilic heads
and two fatty acid tails
(hydrophobic). Hydrophobic tails face
each other and form a bilayer.
 Lipid-soluble substances – cross cell
membranes
 Water-soluble substances – cannot
dissolve in the lipid membrane.
 Proteins
 Integral Proteins – span the entire
membrane, include ion channels and
transport proteins.
 Peripheral Proteins – located on
either the intracellular or
extracellular side of the cell, include
hormone receptors.
 Intercellular Connections
 Tight junctions – zonula occludens,
attachments between cells; may be
an intercellular pathway for solutes
(impermeable vs. permeable)
 Gap Junctions – attachments
between cells that permit
intercellular communication.
 Transport Across Membranes
 DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY
• Simple Diffusion – “downhill”
 Permeability – the ease with
which a solute diffuses through a
membrane
 Factors that increase

permeability – inc. oil/water

partition coefficient, dec. radius
of the solute, dec. membrane
thickness
Let’s Imagine This…..
Let’s Imagine This…..
 DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY:
• Facilitated Diffusion: “Downhill”
 More rapid than simple diffusion
 Exhibits:

• Stereospecificity
• Saturation
• Competition
 REQUIRES ENERGY:
• Primary Active Transport: “Uphill”
 Requires direct input of metabolic

energy in the form of ATP

 Is carrier-mediated.

 Examples: Na-K-ATPase Pump, Ca-

ATPase pump, H-K-ATPase pump

(proton pump).
Let’s Imagine This…..
 REQUIRES ENERGY:
• Secondary Active Transport: “Uphill”
 Transport of two or more solutes is

coupled
• One of the solute (usually Na) is
transported downhill and provides
energy for the “uphill” transport of
the other solute.
 Osmosis
 Osmolarity – concentration of
osmotically active particles in a
solution
 Can be calculated using the following
equation:
• Osmolarity = g x C
• Where g – number of particles in a
solution
• C – concentration (mol/L)
 Osmosis – the flow of water across a
semipermeable membrane from a
solution with low solute
concentration to a solution with high
solute concentration.
 Osmotic pressure increases when the
solute concentration increases.
 Isotonic – two solutions having the
same effective osmotic pressure
 Hypertonic – the solution with higher
effective osmotic pressure
 Hypotonic – the solution with the
lower effective osmotic pressure

* Water flows from the hypotonic to the hypertonic

solution
 Reflection coefficient – describes the
ease with which a solute permeates
a membrane (value = 0 to 1)
• if 1 = solute is impermeable, creates an
osmotic pressure, causes water flow.
• If 0 = solute is completely permeable,
will not exert any osmotic effect.
Diffusion Potential, Resting Membrane
Potential and Action Potential
 Ion channels – integral proteins that
span the membrane and when open,
permit the passage of certain ions.
• Are selective
• May be open or closed
• Conductance depends on the probability
that the channel is open; the higher the
probability that a channel is open, the
higher the conductance or permeability.
 + +
+ +
+

 Voltage-gated channels – are opened

or closed by changes in membrane
potential
 Ligand-gated channels – opened or
closed by hormones, second
messengers or neurotransmitters.
 Diffusion potential – potential
difference generated across a
membrane because of a
concentration difference of an ion.
• Diffusion potential can be generated
only if the membrane is permeable to
the ion.
• The size of the diffusion potential
depends on the size of the concentration
gradient.
 + - +
- -
- +
+
- +
+ + - +

- + -
- +
+
- +
+ -
+
+ -
+ + +
- -
+
-
- -
+
 The equilibrium potential is the
diffusion potential that exactly
balances the tendency for diffusion
caused by a concentration difference.
 At electrochemical equilibrium, the
chemical and electrical driving forces
that act on an ion are equal and
opposite, and no more diffusion of
the ion occurs.
Approximate values for Equilibrium
potentials in Nerve and Muscle

 ENa = +65 mV
 ECa2 = +120 mV
 EK = -85 mV
 ECl = -85 mV
 Resting membrane potential –
expressed as the measured potential
difference across the cell membrane
in millivolts.
 By convention, it is expressed as the
intracellular potential relative to the
extracellular potential.
 Each permeable ion attempts to
drive the membrane potential toward
its equilibrium potential.
 For example: the resting membrane
potential of nerve is -70 mV which is
close to the calculated K+ equilibrium
of -85 mV, but far from the
calculated Na+ equilibrium potential
(+65 mV); thus, at rest, the nerve
membrane is far more permeable to
K than Na.
 Depolarization – makes the
membrane potential less negative
(the cell interior becomes less
negative)
 Hyperpolarization – makes the
membrane potential more negative
 Inward current – the flow of positive
charge into the cell.
 Outward current – flow of the
positive charge out of the cell.
 + +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +

- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
 Action potential – property of
excitable cells that consists of a rapid
depolarization or upstroke, followed
by repolarization of the membrane
potential.
 Action potentials have stereotypical
size and shape, are propagating and
are all-or-none.
 Threshold – the membrane potential
at which the action potential is
inevitable. Inward current
depolarizes the membrane. If the
inward current depolarizes the
membrane to threshold, it produces
an action potential.
Resting membrane potential – is
approx. -70 mV, cell negative; the
result of the high resting
conductance to K+ which drives the
membrane potential toward the K+
equilibrium potential.
Note: at rest, the Na+ channels are
closed and Na+ conductance is low.
 Upstroke – inward current
depolarizes the membrane potential
to threshold.
 Depolarization causes rapid opening
of the activation gates of the Na+
channel, and the Na+ conductance of
the membrane promptly increases.
 Depolarization also closes the
inactivation gates of the Na+ channel.
 Depolarization slowly opens K+
channels and increases K+
conductance to even higher levels
than at rest.
 Repolarization is caused by an
outward K+ current.
 Absolute Refractory Period – period
during which another action potential
cannot be elicited no matter how
large the stimulus.
 Relatively refractory period – an
action potential can be elicted during
this period only if a larger than usual
inward current is provided.
 Absolute Relative
Refractory Refractory
Period Period

-70 mV Resting Membrane Potential

-85 mV

Time in seconds
 Accommodation – occurs when the cell
membrane is held at a depolarized
level such that the threshold potential
is passed without firing an action
potential (e.g. hyperkalemia in skeletal
muscles)
 Propagation of Action Potentials –
occurs by the spread of local
currents to adjacent areas of
membrane which are then
depolarized to threshold and
generate action potentials.
 Conduction velocity is increased by:
• Increase in fiber size – increasing the
diameter of a nerve fiber results in
decreased internal resistance.
• Myelination – myelin acts as an insulator
around nerve axons and increases
conduction velocity (saltatory
conduction)
BREAK
 QUIZ
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SOLUTION 1 SOLUTION 2