Presupposition & Entailment

Lecture # 05
(1)What is Presupposition?
(2) Difference between Presupposition and entailment
(3)Types of Presupposition
(i)EXISTENTIAL PRESUPOSITION
(ii)FACTIVE PRESUPPOSITION
(iii)LEXICAL PRESUPPOSITION
(iii)STRUCTURAL PRESUPPOSITION
(iv)NON-FACTIVE PRESUPPOSITION
(v)COUNTER-FACTUAL PRESUPPOSITION.
(4)THE PROJECTION PROBLEM
(5)DEFEASIBILTY
(6) Ordering entailment
(7)Discussion

Topics
A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the
case prior to making an utterance.

Important points about Preposition:
(1)Speakers, not sentences, have presupposition.
Which can be either correct or false.
(2)Preposition are closely based upon the actual linguistic
structure of the sentence. But not semantic in true sense.

These linguistic expressions are known as presupposition
triggers.

Marys brother bought three horses

WHAT IS Presupposition?
An Entailment is something that logically comes out from
what is asserted in the utterance.

Important points about Preposition:
(1)Sentences, not Speakers, have presupposition.

(2)Entailments are closely based upon the actual linguistic
structure of the sentence. These are semantic in true sense
but also depend upon our encyclopaedic knowledge.
These linguistic expressions are known as presupposition
triggers.

Marys brother bought three horses
WHAT IS Entailment?
Example
i. Marys dog is cute (=p)
ii. Marys dog isnt cute (=NOT p)
Presupposition
Marry has a dog (=q)
a. P >>q
b. NOT P >>q

The preposition remains correct in negative as well
as positive sentence this is called constancy
under negation.

WHAT IS Presupposition?
Speakers express their assumptions
through the use of a large number of
words, phrases, and structures. These
linguistic forms can be called potential
presuppositions, which can only become
actual presuppositions in contexts with
speakers.
There are six important type of
Presupposition

Types of Presupposition
EXISTENTIAL PRESUPPOSITION
Existential presupposition carries the
information about the existence of
something.

This type of presupposition is expressed
by three ways.

(i) By using possessive constructions e.g.
your car
(ii)By using any definite noun phrase.
e.g. the cat, the girl next door, the
King of France
(iii)use of proper noun e.g. Jinnah


FACTIVE PRESUPPOSITION
Factive presupposition carries the information that is
assumed to be true .

Factive presupposition occurs in after some verbs like
know, realize , regret, odd, glad, and phrases involving
be with aware.

For example,
a. Everyone knows that he is the culprit.(>>He is culprit)
b. She didnt realize he was ill.(>>He was ill)
c. We regret telling him.(>>We told him)
d. I wasnt aware that she was married. (>> She was
married)
e. It isnt odd that he left early. (>>He left early)
f. Im glad that its over(>>Its over)



LEXICAL PRESUPPOSITION
LEXICAL PRESUPPOSITION: lexical items have
asserted meaning as well as non assertive
meanings. These non assertive meanings are
known as lexical presupposition.

For example
He Managed to get the job.

Asserted meaning: He succeeded in getting job
Non-asserted meaning(presupposition): >> He
tried for getting job



LEXICAL PRESUPPOSITION

Every time we use these items both asserted and non asserted
meanings are expressed.
Examples:
a. He stopped smoking. (>> He used to smoke)
b. The started complaining(>> The werent complaining
before)
c. Youre late again(>> you were late before)

Difference between Lexical and factive presupposition
In the case of lexical presupposition, the speakers use of a
particular expression is taken to presuppose another(unstated)
concept, whereas in the case of a factive presupposition, the
use of a particular expression is taken to presuppose the truth
of the information that is stated after it.

STRUCTURAL PRESUPPOSTION
In structural presupposition the construction
of sentences is such as to treat information
presupposed, and hence to be accepted by the
listener.

For example:
The wh-question construction in English is
conventionally interpreted with
presupposition that the information after the
wh- form is already known to be the case.

a. When did he leave? (>> He left)
b. Where did you see him? (>> You see him)


NON-FACTIVE PRESUPPOSITION
Non factive presupposition carries the
information that is assumed to be
untrue.

It is associated with certain verbs like
Dream, imagine, pretend

a. I dreamed that I was rich( >> I was
not rich)
b. We imagined we were in Swat(>>
We were not in Swat)
c. He pretends to be ill. (>> He is not ill)

COUNTER-FACTUL PRESUPPOSITION
Counter factual presupposition
carries the information that is assumed
to be not only untrue but opposite to
what is stated.

Example: conditional sentences are
the best example of Counter-factual
presupposition.

If you were my friend you would
have helped me(>> You are not my
friend)
THE PROJECTION PROBLEM
The meaning of some presuppositions doesnt
survive to become the meaning of some
complex sentences. This is called projection
Problem.
Example
a. No body realized that Kelley was ill
b. I imagined that Kelley was ill
c. I imagined that Kelley was ill and no body
realized that Kelley was ill

Other examples
John doesnt regret having failed, because
in fact he passed
Its possible that Harry regrets tampering
with the tape, although I dont believe he
ever did it.

DEFEASIBILITY
Defeasibility means Cancellation or
suspension of the presupposition it is based
upon Entailment(logical outcome of a
sentence)
Examples
Musharf became president of Pakistan after
WW three.
The student said that he did not realize that
Lahore is the capital of Pakistan.
Another Example
i. Sue cried before he finished her thesis(>>
Sue has completed her thesis)
ii. Sue died before she finished her thesis(>>
Sue has not completed her thesis)

Entailment more powerful than the presupposition


Ordering Entailment
Types of Entailments
a. background entailments
b. Foreground entailments
Rover chased three squirrels
use of stress to indicate the particular
entailment being stressed
Examples
Rover chased THREE squirrels
ROVER chased three squirrels


Conclusion


1. Entailment is more powerful than
presupposition
2. Every presupposition is potential only
becomes actual within a context and
co-text.
3. Tentative statements can be given when
we have doubt about the existential
presuppositions.
4. Presupposition and entailments are yet
other examples of more being
communicated than is said.


DISCUSSION


Q. Answer the following questions in two
to three lines.(Justify your answers with
logic)


a. Which one is more related to semantics
entailment or presupposition?
b. Do you think that the literal meaning of
presupposition is similar to the pragmatic
meaning of presupposition?
c. Can you guess which type of presupposition are
most commonly used in the lectures of
pragmatics?


THANK YOU