DEE2363 Signals and Systems: by Mr. Koay Fong Thai

1
DEE2363
Signals And Systems
by Mr. Koay Fong Thai
koayft@psdc.org.my ;
ftkoay@gmail.com
2
Announcement (1)
Schedule
Feedback to Lecturer
(First two weeks of the semester)
The availability of Room, Students, Lecturer.

Plagiarism
7 cases in August08 Final/Resit Exams.
1 expelled, 6 with Warning Letters and Re-
take.
3
Announcement (2)
Badge
Warning Letter.

Absent
3 times Warning Letter and inform parents.
Less than 75% attendance to be barred
from final exam.

Use of Handphones and Laptops are
STRICTLY PROHIBITED in Class and Lab.
4
Dos
Feel free to ask questions during the class
(without disturbance), or
my consultation hours,
every Wednesday and Friday, 9am 11am.
Be sensitive to find my errors.
Work hard to get a good grade.
Be on time in the class.
Be on time to submit coursework (take note
of the format).
5
Donts
Use of cell phones and computers in the
class.
Play games!!
Sleep and/or talk in the class.
Copy tutorials/assignments (you will get zero
if I catch you).
etc, to be defined by me.
6
Assessment
Tutorial : 10%
Quiz : 10%
Assignment : 10%
Mid-Term Tests : 20%
50% ****
Final Exam : 50% .
100%
Less than
25% to
be barred
from final
exam!!
7
Lecture and Tutorial Schedule
Lecture
Week
Wed
8am-10am
B19 EEA
Tues, 10am-12pm
B19 EEB
Tues, 8am-10am
B19 CE
Thurs, 10am-12pm
1 6 --
2 13 --
3 20 Tut 19 19 21
4 27 Tut 26 26 28
5 4 --
6 11 Tut 10 10 12
7 18 Tut 17 17 19
8 25 Tut 24 24 26
9
10 8 Tut 7 7 9
11 15 Tut 14 14 16
12 22 Tut 21 21 23
13 29 --
14 6 Tut 5 5 7
15 13 Tut 12 12 14
16 ----- Tut 19 19 21
25 J uly - 31 J uly : Study Week
1 August - 14 August : Exam Weeks
June
July
Mid-Term Break (30 May - 5 J une)
May
Tutorial (Lab??)
April
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Lecture Schedule with Outcome

Week
Wed
8am-10am
Outcome Contents
1 6 --
2 13 --
3 20 Tut
4 27 Tut
5 4 --
6 11 Tut
7 18 Tut
8 25 Tut
9
10 8 Tut
11 15 Tut
12 22 Tut
13 29 --
14 6 Tut
15 13 Tut
16 ----- Tut Revision (Tutorials)
Lecture
April
1 Introduction
Continuous/discrete time signals & signal
operations
2
Signals and
Systems in Time
Impulse response, Convolution Integral/Sum,
Differential/Difference Equations, Linear Constant-
Coefficient Differential/Difference Equations.
25 J uly - 31 J uly : Study Week
1 August - 14 August : Exam Weeks
May
June
Discrete-time Fourier Transform, the properties
and applications in signals and systems, Inverse
4
Laplace Transform
Its properties and the inverse transform;
Laplace Transform analysis of signals and
July
5
z-Transform
Its properties and the inverse transform;
z-Transform analysis of signals and systems.
3
Fourier Transform
Signals in frequency domain, Continuous/discrete
Fourier Series; Continuous-time Fourier
Transform,
Mid-Term Break
9
Broad Aims
To introduce the students to the idea of signal and
system along with the analysis and
characterization.
To introduce the students the transformation
methods for both continuous-time and discrete-
time signals and systems.
To provide a foundation to numerous other
courses that deal with signal and system
concepts directly or indirectly, for instance,
communication, control, instrumentation, and so
on; as well as to students of disciplines such as,
mechanical, chemical and aerospace engineering.
10
Objectives
By the end of the course, you would have
understood:
Basic signal analysis (mostly continuous-time)
Basic system analysis (also mostly continuous
systems)
Time-domain analysis (including convolution)
Laplace Transform and transfer functions
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform
Sampling Theorem and Signal Reconstructions
Basic z-transform
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Topics
Signals and Systems in the time domain
Impulse response, Convolution Integral/Sum,
Differential/Difference Equations, Linear Constant-
Coefficient Differential/Difference Equations.
Fourier Transform
Continuous/discrete Fourier Series and Transform, the
properties and applications in signals and systems,
Inverse Fourier Transform.
Laplace Transform
Properties, inverse transform; analysis of signals and
systems.
z-Transform
Properties, inverse transform; analysis of signals and
systems.
12
Reference Books
B.P. Lathi, Signal Processing and Linear Systems,
1998, Oxford University Press.
PSDC Library : TK5102.9 Lat 1998
M.J. Roberts, Signals and Systems: Analysis Using
Transform Methods and MATLAB, 2004, McGraw Hill.
PSDC Library : TK5102.9 Rob 2004
Alan V. Oppenheim, Alan S. Willsky, S. Hamid Nawab,
Signals and Systems, 2
nd
Edition 1997, Pearson
Education,.
PSDC Library : QA402 Opp 1997
Simon S. Haykin, B. Van Veen, Signals and Systems,
2
nd
Edition 2005, John Wiley & Sons.
13
Introduction to Signals
(CT and DT)
By Koay Fong Thai
koayft@psdc.org.my
14
Topics
Introduction
Size of a Signal
Classification of Signals
Some Useful Signal Operations
Some Useful Signal Models
Even and Odd Functions
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Introduction
The concepts of signals and systems
arise in a wide variety of areas:
communications,
circuit design,
biomedical engineering,
power systems,
speech processing,
etc.
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What is a Signal?
SIGNAL
A set of information or data.
Function of one or more
independent variables.
Contains information about the
behavior or nature of some
phenomenon.
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Examples of Signals
Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal
(or brainwave)
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Examples of Signals (2)
Stock Market data as signal (time series)
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What is a System?
SYSTEM
Signals may be processed further
by systems, which may modify
them or extract additional from
them.
A system is an entity that
processes a set of signals
(inputs) to yield another set of
signals (outputs).
20
What is a System? (2)
A system may be made up of
physical components, as in
electrical or mechanical systems
(hardware realization).
A system may be an algorithm
that computes an outputs from
an inputs signal (software
realization).
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Examples of signals and systems
Voltages (x
1
) and currents (x
2
) as functions
of time in an electrical circuit are examples
of signals.
A circuit is itself an example of a system (T),
which responds to applied voltages and
currents.
22
Signals Classification
Signals may be classified into:
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
2. Analogue and digital signals
3. Periodic and aperiodic signals
4. Causal, noncausal and anticausal signals
5. Even and Odd signals
6. Energy and power signals
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Signals Classification (2)
Continuous versus Discrete
Continuous-time
A signal that is
specified for every
value of time t.

Discrete-time
A signal that is
specified only at
discrete values
of time t.
24
Analogue versus Digital (1)
Analogue, continuous

Analogue, discrete
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Analogue versus Digital (2)
Digital, continuous

Digital, discrete
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Periodic versus Aperiodic
A CT signal x(t) is said to be periodic if for
some positive constant T
o
,

The smallest value of T
o
that satisfies the
periodicity condition is the fundamental
period of x(t).

27
Periodic versus Aperiodic (2)
Fundamental period = T
o
.
Then, fundamental frequency is f
o
= 1/T
o
in
Hz or cycles per second.
or

Angular frequency,
o
= 2t/T
o
, radian per
second.
Example, f(t) = C cos (2tf
o
t+u)
C : amplitude; f
o
: frequency; u : phase
Rewriting f(t) = C cos (
o
t+u)

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A DT signal x[n] is said to be periodic if for all
positive integer N,

The smallest value of N is the fundamental
period of x[n].
Fundamental angular frequency, O is defined
by O = 2t/N.

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For the signal,

Find the period and the fundamental
frequency of the signal.
Solution (hint: sin u = cos (u -t/2)):
30

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Aperiodic (Nonperiodic) signals?

32
Causal vs. Noncausal vs. Anticausal
Causal () signal:
A signal that does not start before t =0.
f(t) = 0; t <0
Noncausal signal:
A signal that starts before t =0, such as charge in
capacitor before switch is turned on.
Anticausal signal:
A signal that is zero for all t > 0.
33
Even versus Odd
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Even versus Odd (2)
A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even
signal if
CT:
DT:

A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an odd
signal if
CT:
DT:
35
Signal Classification (12)
Energy versus Power
Signal with finite energy (zero power)

Signal with finite power (infinite energy)

Signals that satisfy neither property are referred
as neither energy nor power signals
36
Size of a Signal (1)
A number indicates the largeness or strength
of the signal.
Such a measure must consider both
amplitude and duration of the signal.
Measurement of the size of a human being, V
with variable radius, r and height, h with
assumption of cylindrical shape given by

37
Size of a Signal (2)
Assuming f(t) = sin t,
f(t) could be a large signal,
yet its positive and negative areas cancel each
other.
Then, indicates a signal of small size.
This can be solved by defining the signal size
as the area under f
2
(t) (f
2
(t) always > 0).
}

tdt sin
38
Size of a Signal, Energy (Joules)
Measured by signal energy E
x
:

Generalize for a complex valued signal to:
CT: DT:

Energy must be finite, which means
39
Size of a Signal, Power (Watts)
If amplitude of x(t) does not 0 when t ,
need to measure power P
x
instead:

Again, generalize for a complex valued signal
to:
CT:

DT:
40
Example
Determine the suitable measures of the
signals in the figure below:
41
Example

42
Summary
By the end of the class, you would have
understood:
Examples of signals
Signals classification

43
Signal Operations for
CT Signals
by Koay Fong Thai
koayft@psdc.org.my
44
Signal Operations
Signal operations are operations on the time
variable of the signal, involve simple
modification of the independent variable.
Time Shifting
Time Scaling
Time Inversion (Reversal)
Combined operations
45
Signal Operations: Time Shifting
Shifting of a signal in time
adding or subtracting the amount of the
shift to the time variable in the function.
x(t) x(tt
o
)
t
o
> 0 (t
o
is positive value),
signal is shifted to the right (delay).
t
o
< 0 (t
o
is negative value),
signal is shifted to the left (advance).
x(t2)? x(t) is delayed by 2 seconds.
x(t+2)? x(t) is advanced by 2 seconds.
46
Signal Operations: Time Shifting (2)
Subtracting a fixed amount from the time
variable will shift the signal to the right that
amount.

Adding to the time variable will shift the signal
to the left.
47
Signal Operations: Time Shifting (3)

48
Signal Operations: Time Scaling
Compresses () and dilates () a
signal by multiplying the time variable by
some amount.
x(t) x(ot)
If o >1, the signal becomes narrower
compression.
If o <1, the signal becomes wider dilation.
Play audio recorded, f(t) in mp3 player at
twice the normal recording speed?
f(2t) or f(t/2)?
f(2t)
49
Signal Operations: Time Scaling (2)
50

51

52
Signal Operations: Time Inversion
(Reversal)
Reversal of the time axis, or folding/flipping
the signal (mirror image) over the y-axis.

53
(Reversal) (2)

54
Signal Operations: Combined
Operations
Signal f(atb) can be realized in TWO ways:
1. Time-shift f(t) by b f(tb),
then, time-scaled f(tb) by a f(atb)

2. Time-scale f(t) by a f(at),
then, time-shift f(at) by b/a f[a(t b/a)]

If a<0, its time inversion operation.
55
Example
Given the signal as shown in figure below.
Plot

i. x (t + 1) ii. x (1-t)

iii. iv.

|
.
|
\
|
t x
2
3
|
.
|
\
|
+1
2
3
t x
x (t)
0 1 2
t
x (t)
0 1 2
t
56
Example (i)
Shift to the left by one unit along the t axis.

x (t + 1)
-1 0 1
t
-2
1
x (t + 1)
-1 0 1
t
-2
1
x (t)
0 1 2
t
x (t)
0 1 2
t
57
Example (ii)
Replace t with t in x(t + 1) x(-t + 1)
x(1-t).
It is obtained graphically by reflecting
x(t + 1) about the y axis.

x (-t + 1)
-1 0 1
t
-2
1
x (-t + 1)
-1 0 1
t
-2
1
x (t + 1)
-1 0 1
t
-2
1
x (t + 1)
-1 0 1
t
-2
1
58
Example (iii)
The signal x(3/2 t) compression of x(t) by
a factor of 2/3.

x (t)
0 1 2
t
x (t)
0 1 2
t
59
Example (iv)
First, advance or shift to the left x(t) by 1 as
shown in figure below.
Then, compress this shifted signal by a
factor of 2/3.
60
Signal Operations

61
Some Useful Signal
Models
by Koay Fong Thai
koayft@psdc.org.my
62
Signal Models: Unit Step Function
Continuous-Time unit step function, u(t):

u(t) is used to start a signal, f(t) at t=0
f(t) has a value of ZERO for t <0
63
(2)
f(t) = e
-at
x u(t) a causal form of e
-at
.

x =

64
(3)
Realize the rectangular pulse below:

65
Signal Models: Unit Impulse Function
Continuous-Time unit impulse function, o(t)
is defined by P.A.M. Diarc:

We can visualize an impulse as a
tall and narrow rectangular
pulse of unit area.

When c 0, the height is very
large, 1/c.
66
(2)
A possible approximation
to a unit impulse:
An overall area that has
been maintained at
unity.

Multiplication of a
function by an Impulse?
bo(t) = 0; for all t=0
is an impulse function
which the area is b.
Graphically, it is
represented by an arrow
"pointing to infinity" at
t=0 with its length equal
to its area.
67
(3)
May use functions other than a rectangular
pulse. Here are three example functions:
Note that the area under the pulse function
must be unity.
68
Signal Models: Unit Ramp Function
Unit ramp function is defined by:
r(t) = t-u(t)
Where can it be used?
69
Signal Models: Example
Describe the signal below:
70
Signal Models: Example (2)
x =t[u(t) u(t-2)]

x = -2(t-3)[u(t-3) u(t-2)]

t[u(t) u(t-2)] - 2(t-3)[u(t-3) u(t-2)]
71
Signal Models: Exponential Function
e
st
Most important function in SNS where s is
complex in general, s = o+j=
Therefore,
e
st
= e
(o+j=)t
= e
ot
e
j=t
= e
ot
(cos=t + jsin=t)
(Eulers formula: e
j=t
= cos=t + jsin=t)

If s
-
= o-j=,
e
s-t
= e
(o-j=)t
= e
ot
e
-j=t
= e
ot
(cos=t - jsin=t)

From the above, e
ot
cos=t = (e
st
+e
-st
)
72
e
st
(2)
Variable s is complex frequency.
e
st
= e
(o+j=)t
= e
ot
e
j=t
= e
ot
(cos=t + jsin=t)
e
s-t
= e
(o-j=)t
= e
ot
e
-j=t
= e
ot
(cos=t - jsin=t)
e
ot
cos=t = (e
st
+e
-st
)
There are special cases of e
st
:
1. A constant k = ke0t (s=0 o=0,==0)
2. A monotonic exponential e
ot
(==0, s=o)
3. A sinusoid cos=t

(o=0, s=j=)
4. An exponentially varying sinusoid e
ot
cos=t
(s= o j=)
73

e
st
(3)
74
Signal Models: Exponential
Function e
st
(4)
In complex frequency plane:
75
Even and Odd Functions
A function f
e
(t) is said to be an even function
of t if
f
e
(t) = f
e
(-t)

A function f
o
(t) is said to be an odd function
of t if
f
o
(t) = -f
o
(-t)
76
Even and Odd Functions: Properties
Property:

Area:
Even signal:

Odd signal:
77
Even and Odd Components of a
Signal (1)
Every signal f(t) can be expressed as a sum
of even and odd components because

Example, f(t) = e
-at
u(t)
78
Even and Odd Components of a
Signal (2)
Example, f(t) = e
-at
u(t) casual?
79
Signal Models: Summary
Unit step function, u(t)
Unit impulse function, o(t)
Unit ramp function, r(t)
Exponential function, e
st
Even and off function
All these functions are used for
CONTINUOUS-TIME signals!!!!
80
Sampling
By Koay Fong Thai
koayft@psdc.org.my
81
Sampling Theorem
Sampling is the process of converting a
continuous signal into a discrete signal.

82
Sampling Theorem (2)
The sampling frequency or sampling
rate, (f
s
)
the number of samples per second
taken from a continuous signal to make
a discrete signal.
It is measured in hertz (Hz).
83
Sampling period or sampling time (T)
The inverse of the sampling frequency
which is the time between samples.
Given the sampling period T, the sampling
frequency is given by
) (
1
Hz
T
f
s
=
84
The discrete-time signal x[n] is obtained
by taking-samples of the analog signal
x
c
(T) every T second.
x[n] = x
c
(nT)
It is measured in hertz (Hz).
The relationship between the variable t of
analog signal and the variable n of discrete-
time signal is
85
We refer to a system that implements the
operation of the above equation as an ideal
continuous-to-discrete-time (C/D) converter:

Block diagram representation of an ideal C/D
Converter

86
Sampling is represented as an impulse train
modulation followed by the conversion into a
sequence.
Figure below illustrates a mathematical representation
of sampling with a periodic impulse train followed by a
conversion to a discrete-time sequence.
(a) Overall system;
(b) x
s
(t) for two sampling rates. The
dashed envelope represents x
c
(t);
(c) The output sequence for the two different sampling rates.
87

Figure below is the DT sequences of two
CT signals at sampling frequency of 5
Hertz (samples/second).
88
Signal Operations for
DT Signals
By Koay Fong Thai
koayft@psdc.org.my
89
Signal Operations
Signal operations are operations on the time
variable of the signal, involve simple
modification of the independent variable.
Time Shifting
Time Scaling
Time Inversion (Reversal)
Combined operations
90
Signal Operations: Time Shifting
Shifting of a signal in time
91
Signal Operations: Time Scaling
Compresses and expanses a signal by
multiplying the time variable by some
integers.
x(k) x(ok)
If o >1, the signal becomes narrower
compression data losses
decimation () or downsampling (
).
If o <1, the signal becomes wider
expansion.
Insert missing samples using an interpolation
formula interpolation () or upsampling (
)
92

93
(Reversal)
Reversal of the time axis, or folding/flipping
the signal (mirror image) over the y-axis.

94
Some Useful Signal
Models
By Koay Fong Thai
koayft@psdc.org.my
95
Discrete-Time unit step function/sequence,
u(k):

The unit step is the running sum of an
impulse:

u n k
k
n
[ ] [ ] =
=
o
96
Discrete-Time unit impulse
function/sequence, o(k):

The unit impulse is the first-difference of a
unit step:
o[ ] [ ] [ ] n u n u n = 1
97
Signal Models: DT Exponential
Function
k
In CT SNS, CT exponential e
st
can be
expressed in another form,
t
where
t
= e
st
.
However, in DT SNS, it is proven that
k
is
more convenient than e
k
(k is the integer).

98
Signal Models: DT Exponential
Function
k
(2)

99

Signal Models : DT Exponential
Function
k
(3)
100
Questions and Answer
Any questions?

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