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Chapter 3: Forces
Unit 1: Energy and Motion
Table of Contents
3.3: The Third Law of Motion
3.1: Newtons Second Law
3.2: Gravity
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Newtons first law of motion states that the
motion of an object changes only if an
unbalanced force acts on the object.
Newtons second law of motion describes
how the forces exerted on an object, its mass,
and its acceleration are related.
Force, Mass, and Acceleration
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Whats different
about throwing a ball
horizontally as hard
as you can and
tossing it gently?
When you throw
hard, you exert a
much greater force
on the ball.
Force and Acceleration
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Force and Acceleration
3.1
Newtons Second Law
The hard-thrown
ball has a greater
change in velocity,
and the change
occurs over a
shorter period of
time.
Recall that acceleration is the change in
velocity divided by the time it takes for the
change to occur.
So, a hard-thrown ball has a greater
acceleration than a gently thrown ball.
Force and Acceleration
3.1
Newtons Second Law
If you throw a softball
and a baseball as hard
as you can, why dont
they have the same
speed?
The difference is due
to their masses.
Mass and Acceleration
3.1
Newtons Second Law
If it takes the same amount of time to
throw both balls, the softball would
have less acceleration.
Mass and Acceleration
3.1
Newtons Second Law
The acceleration of an object depends on
its mass as well as the force exerted on it.
Force, mass, and acceleration are related.
Newtons second law of motion states that
the acceleration of an object is in the same
direction as the net force on the object, and
that the acceleration can be calculated from
the following equation:
Newtons Second Law
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Newtons second law also can be used to
calculate the net force if mass and
acceleration are known.
Calculating Net Force with the
Second Law
3.1
Newtons Second Law
To do this, the equation for Newtons second
law must be solved for the net force, F.
To solve for the net force, multiply both sides
of the equation by the mass:
Calculating Net Force with the
Second Law
3.1
Newtons Second Law
The mass, m, on the left side cancels, giving
the equation:
Suppose you give a skateboard a push with
your hand.
Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
According to Newtons first law of motion,
if the net force acting on a moving object is
zero, it will continue to move in a straight
line with constant speed.
Does the skateboard keep moving with
constant speed after it leaves your hand?
Recall that when an object slows down it is
accelerating.
Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
By Newtons second law, if the skateboard is
accelerating, there must be a net force acting
on it.
The force that slows the skateboard and
brings it to a stop is friction.
Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Friction is the force that opposes the sliding
motion of two surfaces that are touching each
other.
The amount of friction between two surfaces
depends on two factorsthe kinds of
surfaces and the force pressing the surfaces
together.
If two surfaces are in contact, welding or
sticking occurs where the bumps touch each
other.
What causes friction?
3.1
Newtons Second Law
These microwelds are the source of friction.
The larger the force pushing the two surfaces
together is, the stronger these microwelds
will be, because more of the surface bumps
will come into contact.
Sticking Together
3.1
Newtons Second Law
To move one
surface over the
other, a force
must be applied
to break the
microwelds.
Suppose you have filled a cardboard box with
books and want to move it.
Static Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Its too heavy to lift,
so you start pushing
on it, but it doesnt
budge.
If the box doesnt
move, then it has
zero acceleration.
According to Newtons second law, if the
acceleration is zero, then the net force on the
box is zero.
Static Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Another force that cancels your push must be
acting on the box.
That force is the friction due to the microwelds
that have formed between the bottom of the
box and the floor.
Static Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Static friction is
the frictional force
that prevents two
surfaces from
sliding past each
other.
You ask a friend to help you move the box.
Sliding Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Pushing together, the
box moves. Together
you and your friend
have exerted enough
force to break the
microwelds between
the floor and the
bottom of the box.
If you stop pushing, the box quickly comes to
a stop.
Sliding Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
This is because as the box slides across the
floor, another forcesliding
frictionopposes the motion of the box.
Sliding friction is the force that opposes the
motion of two surfaces sliding past each
other.
Rolling Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
As a wheel rolls over a surface, the wheel
digs into the surface, causing both the wheel
and the surface to be deformed.
Static friction acts over the deformed area
where the wheel and surface are in contact,
producing a frictional force called rolling
fiction.
Rolling Friction
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Rolling friction is the frictional force between
a rolling object and the surface it rolls on.
When an object falls toward Earth, it is
pulled downward by the force of gravity.
Air Resistance
3.1
Newtons Second Law
However, a friction-like force called air
resistance opposes the motion of objects
that move through the air.
Air resistance causes objects to fall with
different accelerations and different speeds.
Air resistance acts in the opposite direction
to the motion of an object through air.
Air Resistance
3.1
Newtons Second Law
If the object is falling downward, air
resistance acts upward on the object.
The size of the air resistance force also
depends on the size and shape of an object.
The amount of air resistance on an object
depends on the speed, size, and shape of
the object.
Air Resistance
3.1
Newtons Second Law
Air resistance, not
the objects mass, is
why feathers, leaves,
and pieces of paper
fall more slowly
than pennies, acorns,
and apples.
As an object falls, the downward force of
gravity causes the object to accelerate.
Terminal Velocity
3.1
Newtons Second Law
However, as an object
falls faster, the upward
force of air resistance
increases.
This causes the net
force on a sky diver to
decrease as the sky
diver falls.
Finally, the upward air resistance force
becomes large enough to balance the
downward force of gravity.
Terminal Velocity
3.1
Newtons Second Law
This means the net force on the object is
zero.
Then the acceleration of the object is also
zero, and the object falls with a constant
speed called the terminal velocity.
The terminal velocity is the highest speed
a falling object will reach.
Terminal Velocity
3.1
Newtons Second Law
The terminal velocity depends on the size,
shape, and mass of a falling object.
3.1
Section Check
Question 1
A. acceleration
B. momentum
C. speed
D. velocity
Newtons second law of motion states that
_________ of an object is in the same
direction as the net force on the object.
3.1
Section Check
Answer
The answer is A. Acceleration can be calculated
by dividing the net force in newtons by the mass
in kilograms.
3.1
Section Check
Question 2
A. joule
B. lux
C. newton
D. watt
The unit of force is __________.
3.1
Section Check
Answer
The answer is C. One newton = 1 kg m/s
2
3.1
Section Check
Answer
Friction results from the sticking together of two
surfaces that are in contact.
Question 3
What causes friction?
What is gravity?
Gravity is an attractive force between any
two objects that depends on the masses of the
objects and the distance between them.
3.2
Gravity
Gravity is one of the four basic forces.
The other basic forces are the
electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear
force, and the weak nuclear force.
3.2
Gravity
GravityA Basic Force
Isaac Newton formulated the law of universal
gravitation, which he published in 1687.
This law can be written as the following
equation.
3.2
Gravity
The Law of Universal Gravitation
In this equation G is a constant called the
universal gravitational constant, and d is the
distance between the two masses, m1 and m2.
The law of universal gravitation enables the
force of gravity to be calculated between any
two objects if their masses and the distance
between them is known.
3.2
Gravity
The Law of Universal Gravitation
According to the law of universal gravitation,
the gravitational force between two masses
decreases rapidly as the distance between the
masses increases.
3.2
Gravity
The Range of Gravity
No matter how far apart two objects are, the
gravitational force between them never
completely goes to zero.
3.2
Gravity
The Range of Gravity
Because the gravitational force between two
objects never disappears, gravity is called a
long-range force.
In the 1840s the most distant planet known
was Uranus.
3.2
Gravity
Finding Other Planets
The motion of Uranus calculated from the
law of universal gravitation disagreed
slightly with its observed motion.
Some astronomers suggested that there
must be an undiscovered planet affecting
the motion of Uranus.
Using the law of universal gravitation and
Newtons laws of motion, two astronomers
independently calculated the orbit of this
planet.
3.2
Gravity
Finding Other Planets
As a result of these
calculations, the
planet Neptune was
found in 1846.
3.2
Gravity
Earths Gravitational Acceleration
When all forces except gravity acting on a
falling object can be ignored, the object is
said to be in free fall.
Close to Earths surface, the acceleration of a
falling object in free fall is about 9.8 m/s
2
.
This acceleration is given the symbol g and is
sometimes called the acceleration of gravity.
Close to Earths surface, the acceleration of a
falling object in free fall is about 9.8 m/s
2
.
3.2
Gravity
Earths Gravitational Acceleration
This acceleration is given the symbol g and is
sometimes called the acceleration of gravity.
By Newtons second law of motion, the force
of Earths gravity on a falling object is the
objects mass times the acceleration of
gravity.
The gravitational force exerted on an object
is called the objects weight.
3.2
Gravity
Weight
Because the weight of an object on Earth is
equal to the force of Earths gravity on the
object, weight can be calculated from this
equation:
Weight and mass are not the same.
3.2
Gravity
Weight and Mass
Weight is a force and mass is a measure of
the amount of matter an object contains.
Weight and mass are related. Weight
increases as mass increases.
The weight of an object usually is the
gravitational force between the object
and Earth.
3.2
Gravity
Weight and Mass
The weight of an object can change,
depending on the gravitational force
on the object.
The table shows how various weights on
Earth would be different on the Moon and
some of the planets.
3.2
Gravity
Weight and Mass
Youve probably seen pictures of astronauts
and equipment floating inside the space
shuttle.
3.2
Gravity
Weightlessness and Free Fall
They are said to be experiencing the
sensation of weightlessness.
However, for a typical mission, the shuttle
orbits Earth at an altitude of about 400 km.
3.2
Gravity
Weightlessness and Free Fall
According to the law of universal gravitation,
at 400-km altitude the force of Earths gravity
is about 90 percent as strong as it is at Earths
surface.
So an astronaut with a mass of 80 kg still
would weigh about 700 N in orbit, compared
with a weight of about 780 N at Earths
surface.
So what does it mean to say that something
is weightless in orbit?
3.2
Gravity
Floating in Space
When you stand on a
scale you are at rest and
the net force on you is
zero.
The scale supports you
and balances your
weight by exerting an
upward force.
The dial on the scale shows the upward force
exerted by the scale, which is your weight.
3.2
Gravity
Floating in Space
Now suppose you
stand on the scale
in an elevator that
is falling.
If you and the scale were in free fall, then you
no longer would push down on the scale at all.
3.2
Gravity
Floating in Space
The scale dial
would say you
have zero weight,
even though the
force of gravity on
you hasnt
changed.
A space shuttle in orbit is in free fall, but it
is falling around Earth, rather than straight
downward.
3.2
Gravity
Floating in Space
Everything in the orbiting space shuttle is
falling around Earth at the same rate, in the
same way you and the scale were falling in
the elevator.
Objects in the shuttle seem to be floating
because they are all falling with the same
acceleration.
If youve tossed a ball to someone, youve
probably noticed that thrown objects dont
always travel in straight lines. They curve
downward.
3.2
Gravity
Projectile Motion
Earths gravity causes projectiles to follow
a curved path.
When you throw a ball, the force exerted by
your hand pushes the ball forward.
3.2
Gravity
Horizontal and Vertical Motions
This force gives the ball horizontal motion.
No force accelerates
it forward, so its
horizontal velocity is
constant, if you
ignore air resistance.
However, when you let go of the ball, gravity
can pull it downward, giving it vertical
motion.
3.2
Gravity
Horizontal and Vertical Motions
The ball has constant horizontal velocity but
increasing vertical velocity.
Gravity exerts an unbalanced force on the
ball, changing the direction of its path from
only forward to forward and downward.
3.2
Gravity
Horizontal and Vertical Motions
The result of these two motions is that the
ball appears to travel in a curve.
If you were to throw a
ball as hard as you
could from shoulder
height in a perfectly
horizontal direction,
would it take longer to
reach the ground than
if you dropped a ball
from the same height?
3.2
Gravity
Horizontal and Vertical Distance
Click image to view movie
Surprisingly, it wouldnt.
3.2
Gravity
Horizontal and Vertical Distance
Both balls travel the same vertical distance
in the same amount of time.
When a ball enters a curve, even if its speed
does not change, it is accelerating because its
direction is changing.
3.2
Gravity
Centripetal Force
When a ball goes around a curve, the change
in the direction of the velocity is toward the
center of the curve.
Acceleration
toward the
center of a
curved or
circular path
is called
centripetal
acceleration.
3.2
Gravity
Centripetal Force
According to the second law of motion, when
a ball has centripetal acceleration, the
direction of the net force on the ball also
must be toward the center of the curved path.
3.2
Gravity
Centripetal Force
The net force exerted toward the center of a
curved path is called a centripetal force.
When a car rounds a curve on a highway, a
centripetal force must be acting on the car
to keep it moving in a curved path.
3.2
Gravity
Centripetal Force and Traction
This centripetal force is the frictional force,
or the traction, between the tires and the
road surface.
Anything that moves in a circle is doing so
because a centripetal force is accelerating it
toward the center.
3.2
Gravity
Centripetal Force and Traction
Imagine whirling an object tied to a string
above your head.
3.2
Gravity
Gravity Can Be a Centripetal Force
The string exerts a centripetal force on the
object that keeps it moving in a circular path.
3.2
Gravity
Gravity Can Be a Centripetal Force
In the same way, Earths gravity exerts a
centripetal force on the Moon that keeps it
moving in a nearly circular orbit.
3.2
Section Check
Question 1
Gravity is an attractive force between any two
objects and depends on the masses of the objects
and the distance between them.
Gravity is an attractive force between any
two objects and depends on __________.
Answer
3.2
Section Check
Question 2
A. gravity
B. net
C. strong nuclear
D. weak nuclear
Which is NOT one of the four basic forces?
3.2
Section Check
Answer
The answer is B. The fourth basic force is the
electromagnetic force, which causes electricity,
magnetism, and chemical interactions between
atoms and molecules.
3.2
Section Check
Question 3
A. F = G(m
1
m
2
/d
2
)
B. G = F(m
1
m
2
/d
2
)
C. F = G(m
1
- m
2
/d
2
)
D. F = G(d
2
/m
1
m
2
)
Which of the following equations represents
the law of universal gravitation?
3.2
Section Check
Answer
The answer is A. In the equation, G is the
universal gravitational constant and d is the
distance between the two masses, m
1
and m
2
.
Newtons Third Law
Newtons third law of motion describes
action-reaction pairs this way. When one
object exerts a force on a second object,
the second one exerts a force on the first
that is equal in strength and opposite in
direction.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
Action and Reaction
When a force is applied in nature, a reaction
force occurs at the same time.
When you jump on a trampoline, for
example, you exert a downward force on
the trampoline.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
Simultaneously, the trampoline exerts an
equal force upward, sending you high into
the air.
Action and Reaction Forces Dont
Cancel
According to the third law of motion, action
and reaction forces act on different objects.
Thus, even though the forces are equal, they
are not balanced because they act on different
objects.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
For example, a swimmer acts on the water,
the reaction of the water pushes the
swimmer forward.
Thus, a net force,
or unbalanced
force, acts on the
swimmer so a
change in his or her
motion occurs.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
Action and Reaction Forces Dont
Cancel
Rocket Propulsion
In a rocket engine, burning fuel produces
hot gases. The rocket engine exerts a force
on these gases and causes them to escape
out the back of the rocket.
By Newtons third law,
the gases exert a force
on the rocket and push
it forward.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
Momentum
A moving object has a property called
momentum that is related to how much force
is needed to change its motion.
The momentum of an object is the product
of its mass and velocity.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
Momentum
Momentum is given the symbol p and can
be calculated with the following equation:
The unit for momentum is kg m/s. Notice
that momentum has a direction because
velocity has a direction.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
Force and Changing Momentum
Recall that acceleration is the difference
between the initial and final velocity,
divided by the time.
Also, from Newtons second law, the net
force on an object equals its mass times
its acceleration.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
Force and Changing Momentum
By combining these two relationships,
Newtons second law can be written in this
way:
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
In this equation mv
f
is the final momentum
and mv
i
is the initial momentum.
Law of Conservation of Momentum
The momentum of an object doesnt change
unless its mass, velocity, or both change.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
Momentum, however, can be transferred
from one object to another.
The law of conservation of momentum states
that if a group of objects exerts forces only
on each other, their total momentum doesnt
change.
When Objects Collide
The results of a collision depend on the
momentum of each object.
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
When the first puck
hits the second puck
from behind, it gives
the second puck
momentum in the
same direction.
When Objects Collide
3.3
The Third Law of Motion
If the pucks are speeding toward each other
with the same speed, the total momentum is
zero.
3.3

Section Check
Question 1
According to Newtons law, the second object
exerts a force on the first that is equal in
strength and opposite in direction.
According to Newtons third law of motion,
what happens when one object exerts a force
on a second object?
Answer
3.3
Section Check
Question 2
A. mass, acceleration
B. mass, velocity
C. mass, weight
D. net force, velocity
The momentum of an object is the product
of its __________ and __________.
3.3
Section Check
Answer
The correct answer is B. An objects momentum
is the product of its mass and velocity, and is
given the symbol p.
3.3
Section Check
Question 3
When two objects collide, what happens to
their momentum?
3.3
Section Check
Answer
According to the law of conservation of
momentum, if the objects in a collision exert
forces only on each other, their total momentum
doesnt change, even when momentum is
transferred from one object to another.
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End of Chapter Summary File