Active Filters

Conventional passive filters consist of LCR

networks.
Inductors are undesirable components:
They are particularly non-ideal (lossy)
They are bulky and expensive
Active filters replace inductors using op-amp
based equivalent circuits.
Active Filter Designs
Three active filter design techniques will be covered:

Synthesis by Sections
Cascade of second order sections.
Component Simulation
Replace inductors with op-amp inductor simulations.
Operational Simulation
Simulate all currents and voltages in the LCR ladder using
an analogue computer.
Analogue Filter Responses
H(f)
f
f
c
0
H(f)
f
f
c
0
Ideal brick wall filter Practical filter
Standard Transfer Functions
Butterworth
Flat Pass-band.
20n dB per decade roll-off.
Chebyshev
Pass-band ripple.
Sharper cut-off than Butterworth.
Elliptic
Pass-band and stop-band ripple.
Even sharper cut-off.
Bessel
Linear phase response i.e. no signal distortion in pass-
band.
Analogue Transfer Functions
The transfer function of any analogue filter (active
or passive) can be expressed as the ratio of two
polynomials :

1
0
1
0
N
n
n
M
m
m
p s
z s
K
s D
s N
K s H

1
0
N
n
n
p s
K
s D
K
s H
Special case when M=0, all-pole response :
Poles and Zeros
Poles
Complex values of s where the transfer function is infinite.
i.e. the denominator of the transfer function is zero.
Zeros
Complex values of s where the transfer function is zero.
An N-th order filter will have N poles and up to N
zeros.
Some poles may be in the same place (as may some
zeros).
Example Two Pole Bessel Filter
Low pass, cut-off frequency = 1 rad/s, from tables :


5 . 0 866 . 0
5 . 0 866 . 0
where,
1
1 73 . 1
1
1
0
1 0
2
j p
j p
p s p s s s
s H

Operational Amplifiers
All the active filters we shall study are based
on operational amplifiers (op-amps).
Analysis of linear op-amp circuits is usually
based on simplifying assumptions :
The difference between the non-inverting and
inverting inputs is zero.
The input current is zero.
The output voltage and current is arbitrary.
Op-Amp Assumptions
+
-
V
+
V
-
V
out
anything
anything
0
0

out
out
I
V
I
I
V V
I
+

I
-

I
out

Inverting Amplifier
+
-
Z
1

Z
2

0 V
V
IN
V
OUT
1
2
2 1
2 1
2
2
1
1
0
& 0
Z
Z
V
V
Z
V
Z
V
I I I
Z
V
I
Z
V
I V V
IN
OUT OUT IN
Z Z
OUT
Z
IN
Z

Non-Inverting Amplifier
+
-
Z
1

Z
2

0 V
V
IN
V
OUT
2
1
2
2 1
2 1
2
1
0
Z
Z
Z
Z Z
V
V
V V
Z Z
Z
V V
I
IN
OUT
IN OUT

Buffer Amplifier
Output voltage = Input voltage
Input impedance is infinite
Output impedance is zero
+
-
V
IN
V
OUT
IN OUT
IN
OUT
V V V V
V V
V V

Single-Pole Passive Filter

First order low pass filter
Cut-off frequency = 1/CR rad/s
Problem : Any load (or source) impedance
will change frequency response.
v
in
v
out
C
R
1
1
/ 1
/ 1

sCR
sC R
sC
Z R
Z
v
v
C
C
in
out
Single-Pole Active Filter
Same frequency response as passive filter.
Buffer amplifier does not load RC network.
Output impedance is now zero.
v
in
v
out
C
R
Low-Pass and High-Pass Designs
High Pass Low Pass
1
1
1

sCR
v
v
in
out
1
1

sCR v
v
in
out
Higher Order Filters
You might think we could make higher order filters
by simply cascading N first order filters
This doesnt work
The single pole of a first order filter must be purely
real (no imaginary part)
The poles of a higher order filter usually need to be
complex
Solution: Use second order sections, each one
synthesising a conjugate pair of complex poles
Summary
Active filter designs aim to replace the
inductors in passive filters.
Design techniques :
Synthesis by sections
Component simulation
Operational simulation
All based on op-amps understanding of
basic op-amp circuits is essential.