INSTRUMENTATION &

PROCESS CONTROL
CONTENTS
Introduction to Process Control
Definition of measurement and instrumentation
Types of measurements
Types of instruments in measurements
Review in units of measurement
Standard of measurement
Calibration
Application of measurement and
instrumentation

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Introduction to Process Control
What is Process Control?
To maintain desired conditions in a physical system by
adjusting selected variables in the system at a desired set
point.

Objectives of Process Control
Safety
Environmental Protection
Equipment Protection
Smooth Plant Operation and Production Rate
Product Quality
Profit Optimization
Monitoring and Diagnosis

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Definition of measurement &
instrumentation
Measurement:
A system which provides information of desired
variable.

Purpose of a measurement system





Instrumentation
The measuring devices used in the measuring system.
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Generalised Measuring System
Stage 1: A detection-transducer or sensor-transducer, stage; e.g.
Bourdon tube
Stage 2: A signal conditioning stage; e.g. gearing, filters, bridges
Stage 3: A terminating or readout-recording stage; e.g. printers,
oscilloscope
Stage 4: Data Presentation Element- Analogue or digital display
General Structure of Measuring System
Sensing
element
Signal
conditioning
element
Signal
processing
element
Data
presentation
element
Input
Output
True
value
Measured
value
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Process Control Loop
Block Diagram of Process control loop
Block Diagram of the elements in process
control loop
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ELEMENTS DEFINATION
Feedback
loop

It is the signal path from the output back to the input to
correct for any variation between the output level from the
set level.
Controlled
variable
It is the monitored output variable from a process.

Manipulated
variable
It is the input variable or parameter to a process that is
varied by a control signal from the processor to an
actuator.
Set point
It is the desired value of the output parameter or variable
being monitored by a sensor. Any deviation from this value
will generate an error signal.
Instrument
is the name of any of the various device types for
indicating or measuring physical quantities or conditions,
performance, position, direction, etc.
Sensors
are devices that can detect physical variables, such as
temperature, light intensity, or motion, and have the ability
to give a measurable output that varies in relation to the
amplitude of the physical variable.
Process Control Loop Elements definition
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ELEMENTS DEFINATION
Transducers
are devices that can change one form of energy to another
Converters
are devices that are used to change the format of a signal
without changing the energy form.
Actuators
are devices that are used to control an input variable in
response to a signal from a controller.
Controllers
are devices that monitor signals from transducers and take
the necessary action to keep the process within specified
limits according to a predefined program by activating and
controlling the necessary actuators.
Error Signal
is the difference between the set point and the amplitude of
the measured variable.
Correction
Signal
is the signal used to control power to the actuator to set
the level of the input variable.
Transmitters
are devices used to amplify and format signals so that they
are suitable for transmission over long distances with zero
or minimal loss of information.
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INSTRUMENT PARAMETERS
Range : The range of a sensor is the lowest and highest
values it can measure within its specification.
Span : The span of a sensor is the high end of the Range
minus the low end of the Range.
Resolution: It is the smallest amount of input signal
change that the instrument can detect reliably.
Accuracy It is the difference between the indicated value
and the actual value of a instrument.
Precision It is the reproducibility with which repeated
measurements can be made under identical
conditions.
Reproducibility: It is the ability of an instrument to repeatedly
read the same signal over time, and give the
same output under the same conditions.

Linearity: It is a measure of the proportionality between the
actual value of a variable being measured and the
output of the instrument over its operating range.

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INSTRUMENT DYNAMICS
Instrument: Gain in the process is defined as the
Gain change in input divided by the change in
output. A process with high gain will react
more to the controller output changing.
Sensitivity: The sensitivity of a sensor is the ratio of
the output signal to the change in process
variable.
Offset: is the reading of an instrument with zero
input.
Drift: is the change in the reading of an
instrument of a fixed variable with time.
Hysteresis: is the difference in readings obtained
when an instrument approaches a signal
from opposite directions
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INSTRUMENTS
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Temperature Measurement
Glass stem Thermometer
- low cost, long life
- local readout, difficult to read, no
transmitter
- -200 to 600F, 0.1F accuracy
Bi-metallic Thermometer
- low cost
- -80 to 800F, 1F accuracy
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Temperature Measurement/ Control
Fluid-filled Thermal Elements
- low cost, long life
- -300 to 1000F, % of
full scale accuracy
- low accuracy, great for
some applications where
tight control is not reqd
- self-contained, self-
powered control (can use
fluid expansion to
proportionally open control
valve)
- dial read-out for indication,
can be remotely located

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Local or Remote Temperature
Measurement
Thermocouples
- low cost sensor
- -440 to 5000F,
typically 1 to 2F
accuracy
- wide temperature range
for various types
- rugged, but degrades
over time
- many modern
transmitters can
handle T/C or RTD
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Local or Remote Temperature
Measurement
RTDs
- -300 to 1150F, typically
0.1F accuracy
- more fragile, expensive
than T/C
- better accuracy and
reliability than T/C
- very stable over time
- wide temperature range
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Flow Measurement
Differential Pressure Orifice Meter
- well-characterized and
predictable
- causes permanent pressure
(energy) loss in piping system,
typically 8 W.C. loss (3 to 4 psi loss)
- 5:1 range ability
- requires straight run of 20 pipe
diameters upstream, 5
downstream
- suitable for liquid, gas, and steam
- accuracy is 1 to 2% of upper range
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Flow Measurement
Turbine Flow Meter
- accuracy is 0.25% of rate
- good for clean liquids,
gases
- 5 to 10 pipe diameters
upstream/downstream
- 10:1 turndown
- 3 to 5 psig pressure drop

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Flow Measurement
Magnetic Flow Meter (Mag Meter)
- 0.4 to 40 ft/s, bidirectional
- accurate to 0.5% of rate
- fluid must meet minimum
electrical conductivity
- head losses are insignificant
- good for liquids and slurries
- upstream/downstream
piping does not effect reading
- linear over a 10:1 turndown
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Flow Measurement
Vortex Flow Meter
suitable for liquids, steam, and
gases
must meet min. velocity spec
0.5 to 20 ft/sec range for liquid
5 to 250 ft/sec for gases
non-clogging design
not suitable if cavitation is a
problem
accuracy is % of rate
up to 5 psig head loss
linear over flow ranges of 20:1
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Flow Measurement
Coriolis Effect Mass Flow Meter
used for steam, liquids,
gases
measure mass flow, density,
temperature, volumetric flow
expensive, but 0.2% of rate
accuracy
very stable over time
100:1 turndown
negligible to up to 15 psig
head loss
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Level Measurement
Non-Contacting Radar Level
suitable for liquids and solids
foaming, turbulence, vessel walls
and internals can effect signal if
not installed correctly
can use stilling leg if turbulence
is extreme
typically 0.1 inch accuracy
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Level Measurement
Contacting dP Level
suitable for liquids only
foaming and turbulence will effect
signal
can use stilling leg if turbulence
is extreme
typically 0.05% range accuracy
100:1 turndown
uses same dP transmitter as in dP
flow measurement
Different types of level transmitters are,

Ultrasonic:
Ultrasonic level transmitters are used for non-contact level sensing of highly
viscous liquids, as well as bulk solids. They are also widely used in water
treatment applications for pump control and open channel flow
measurement.
Conductive:
These use a low-voltage, current-limited power source applied across
separate electrodes. These are ideal for the point level detection of a wide
range of conductive liquids such as water, and is especially well suited for
highly corrosive liquids such as caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
ferric chloride, and similar liquids.
Pneumatic:
These transmitters are intended to be used in hazardous environments,
where there is no electric power or its use is restricted, and in applications
involving heavy sludge or slurry.





Level Transmitters
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Pressure Measurement
Gauges are a major group of pressure sensors
that measure pressure with respect to
atmospheric pressure. Gauge sensors are
usually devices that change their shape when
pressure is applied. These devices include
diaphragms, capsules, bellows, and Bourdon
tubes.



Barometers are used for measuring atmospheric pressure. A
simple barometer is the mercury barometer

A piezoelectric pressure gauge is shown in Fig. 5.12b. Piezoelectric
crystals produce a voltage between their opposite faces when a
force or pressure is applied to the crystal. This voltage can be
amplified and the device used as a pressure sensor
Bourdon tube for Pressure
measurement
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Pressure Measurement
Pressure Transmitters
typically 0.075% range accuracy

- Absolute pressure transmitter:
This transmitter measures the pressure
relative to perfect vacuum pressure.
- Gauge pressure transmitter:
This transmitter measures the pressure
relative to a given atmospheric pressure at a
given location.
- Differential Pressure transmitter:
This transmitter measures the difference
between two or more pressures introduced
as inputs to the sensing unit Differential
pressure is also used to measure flow or
level in pressurized vessels.

Other types of Instruments
Hygrometers - Devices that indirectly measure humidity
by sensing changes in physical or electrical properties in
materials due to their moisture content- Capacitive
hygrometer, Piezoelectric hygrometers
Psychrometers- It uses the latent heat of
vaporization to determine the relative humidity.
Hydrometers- are the simplest device for measuring the
specific weight or density of a liquid-Thermohydrometer,
Induction hydrometers
Viscometers - are used to measure the resistance to
motion of liquids and gases- Rotating disc viscometer.
pH sensor It consists of a sensing electrode and a
reference electrode immersed in the test solution which
forms an electrolytic cell. The electrodes are connected to a
differential amplifier, which amplifies the voltage difference
between the electrodes, giving an output voltage that is
proportional to the pH of the solution.



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