Conference Presentations

Steve Wallace
The person who presents the research
gets the credit
Paul Chu: first superconductor with a boiling
point above liquid nitrogen
Maw-Kuen Wu and Jim Ashburn declined to
speak and are not remembered


The presenter gets the credit
Zhengzhi Sheng, a postdoctoral researcher at
the University of Arkansas, discovered another
superconductor at an even higher
temperature.
Because Sheng was not a good speaker, the
department chair, Allen Hermann, spoke at
the press conference. Although Hermann
repeatedly acknowledged the contribution of
Sheng, Hermann was the one who received
most of the credit.

Bad conference presentations

Youve seen poor conference presentations
The speaker:
Sits
Reads
Speaks in a dead, low voice
Uses sentences which are long and complex
Uses technical words and phrases.
Emphasizes complicated details
Runs out of time

Principles of effective conference presentations
An effective talk must do two things:
1. Persuade you audience with evidence
2. Be interesting and entertaining.

Talk, instead to reading
Stand up
Move around
Make eye contact with your audience
Dont only look at one side of the room
Imitate excellent speakers

Why do smart people give poor talks?

Poor speaking is a reaction to fear.
Presentations are not journal articles. They're a
completely different communication, and they
require different skills.


Bohr vs. Nusslein-Volhard
Bohr:
Whereas Einstein tried to grasp a hidden essence by
disregarding anything he thought irrelevant, Bohr
insisted that nothing be left out. Edward
MacKinnon
Bohr was much worse. His failing was that he used too
many words to express any idea, wandering about as
he spoke, often inaudibly. Sir Mark Oliphant
Nusslein-Volhard:
Scope moves from simple to specific
Simple short sentences
Bohrs Nobel prize acceptance
speech
Today, as a consequence of the great honor the
Swedish Academy of Sciences has done me in
awarding me this years Nobel Prize for Physics for
my work on the structure of the atom, it is my duty to
give an account of the results of this work, and I think
that I shall be acting in accordance with the traditions
of the Nobel Foundation if I give this report in the
form of a survey of the development which has taken
place in the last few years within the field of physics
to which this work belongs.

Nies Bohr: Nobel prize acceptance
The present state of atomic theory is characterized
by the fact that we not only believe the existence of
atoms to be proved beyond a doubt, but also we
even believe that we have an intimate knowledge of
the constituents of the individual atoms. I cannot on
this occasion give a survey of the scientific
developments that have led to this resultI will only
recall the discovery of the electron toward the close
of the last century, which furnished the direct
verification and led to the conclusive formulation of
the conception of the atomic nature of electricity
which had evolved since the discovery by Faraday of
the fundamental laws of electrochemical theory, and
its greatest triumph in the electrolytic dissociation
theory of Arrhenius.
Einstein on Bohr
Bohr stated his opinions like one perpetually
groping and never like one who believes
himself to be in possession of definite truth.

Christine Nusslein-Volhard
In the life of animals, complex forms alternate with
simple ones. An individual develops from a simple
one-celled egg that bears no resemblance on the
complex structure and pattern displayed in the
juvenile and adult form. The process of embryonic
development with its highly ordered increase in
complexity accompanied by perfect reproducibitiy, is
controlled by a subset of the animal genes. Animals
have a large number of genes. The exact number is
not known for any multicellular organism, nor is it
known how many and which are required for the
development of complexity, pattern, and shape
during embryogenesis. To identify these genes and to
understand their functions is a major issue in
biological research.
Scientific presenters
Successful scientific presenters
Ludwig Boltzmann
Albert Einstein
Richard Feynman
Rita Levi-Montalcini
Linus Pauling
Became strong presenters later in their careers
Heinrich Hertz,
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Chien-Shiung Wu
Rise above those obstacles to make successful
presentations
Marie Curie
Michael Faraday on presenting
[Lectures] depend entirely for their value on
the manner in which they are given. It is not
the matter, not the subject, so much as the
man.

Scientists who used analogies,
examples, and stories
Otto Frisch when describing the size of a nucleus: If
an atom were enlarged to the size of a bus, the
nucleus would be like the dot on this i.
Einstein used the analogy of shooting sparrows in
the dark
7
to describe the likelihood of producing
nuclear energy with alpha particles striking nitrogen
nuclei.
Fred Soechting when describing his work with
turbine blades in gas turbine engines: The amount
of power produced by a single gas turbine blade
equals that of a Masarati sports car.
8
Issac Asimov on Linus Pauling
On March 21, 1949, I attended a lecture given
by Linus Pauling.... That talk was the best talk
by anyone on any subject that I had ever
heard. The talk was more than a talk to me.
It filled me with a desire of my own to become
a speaker.
James Watson on Paulings presentations
Paulings talk was made with his usual dramatic
flair. The words came out as if he had been in show
business all his life. A curtain kept his model hidden
until near the end of his lecture, when he proudly
unveiled his latest creation. Then, with his eyes
twinkling, Linus explained the specific characteristics
that made his modelthe -helixuniquely
beautiful. Even if he were to say nonsense, his
mesmerized students would never know because of
his unquenchable self-confidence.

David L. Goodstein on Robert Feynman
[Feynman] absolutely riveted the attention of
everyone in the room for the entire time he was there.
His need to do that helps explain some of the racy
stories he liked to tell about himself, but it also lies
close to the core of what made him a great teacher.
For Feynman, the lecture hall was a theater, and the
lecturer a performer, responsible for providing drama
and fireworks as well as facts and figures. This was
true regardless of his audience, whether he was
talking to undergraduates or graduate students, to his
colleagues or the general public.

Professor David Goodstein on Robert
Feynman
But even when he thought he was explaining things
lucidly to freshmen or sophomores, it was not always
really they who benefited most from what he was
doing. It was more often us, scientists, physicists,
professors, who would be the main beneficiaries of
his magnificent achievement, which was nothing less
than to see all of physics with fresh new eyes.

Oppenheimers early lectures
Consider J. Robert Oppenheimers early
lectures given at California-Berkeley in 1929.
Only twenty-five years old, but already well
known for his work on the quantum theory,
Oppenheimer began his teaching that first
semester with a class full of eager graduate
students.
Halfway through the semester, though, the
number of students registered for his course
had dropped to one.


Daniel J. Kelves on Robert Oppenheimer
Desperately eager to reach his students, his
sensitivities sharpened by his own past difficulties,
Oppenheimer made it a point to pay as much attention
to the troubles of his charges as to the intricacies of
his subject. His language evolved into an oddly
eloquent mixture of erudite phrases and pithy slang,
and he learned to exploit the extraordinary talent for
elucidating complex technical matters.

Result of Oppenheimers
practice
Later students found him to be the most
stimulating lecturer they had experienced.
Nobel Prize winner Hans Bethe about
Oppenheimer
Probably the most important ingredient
Oppenheimer brought to his teaching was his
exquisite taste. He always knew what were the
important problems, as shown by his choice of
subjects. He truly lived with those problems,
struggling for a solution, and he
communicated his concern to the group.
Lise Meitner on Ludwig Boltzmann
(the developer of the statistical treatment of atoms)
Boltzmann had no inhibitions whatsoever about
showing his enthusiasm when he spoke, and this
naturally carried his listeners along. He was fond of
introducing remarks of an entirely personal character
into his lectures.

Lise Meitner on Ludwig Bolzmann
[The lecturing of Boltzmann] was the most
beautiful and stimulating thing I have ever
heard.... He was so enthusiastic about
everything he taught us that one left every
lecture with the feeling that a completely new
and wonderful world had been revealed.

Eve Curie on her mother Marie
Curie
On Monday and Wednesday, my mother was nervous and
agitated from the time she got up. At five oclock on these
days she lectured. After lunch she shut herself into her study in
the Quai de Bthune, prepared the lesson, and wrote the heads
of chapters of her lecture on a piece of white paper. Towards
half-past four she would go to the laboratory and isolate
herself in a little rest room. She was tense, anxious,
unapproachable. Marie had been teaching for twenty-five
years; yet every time she had to appear in the little
amphitheater before twenty or thirty pupils who rose in unison
at her entrance she unquestionably had stage fright.

10 tips to develop confidence in conference
presentations

1. Expect to be nervous
2. Prepare
3. Practice
4. Breathe
5. Rehearse
6. Focus on your audience
7. Simplify
8. Picture success
9. Connect with your audience
10. Pretend to be confident

Advantages and disadvantages of
different sources for speech
Sources Advantages Disadvantages
Speaking from points Credibility earned
Ease of adjusting speech
Eye contact
Natural pace
Wording not exact
Long preparation time
Memorizing Precision
Smooth delivery
Credibility earned
Eye contact
Potential for disaster
Unnatural pace
Inability to adjust speech
Long preparation time
Reading Precision
Smooth delivery
Credibility undercut
Lack of eye contact
Unnatural pace
Inability to adjust speech
Long preparation time
Speaking off the cuff No preparation time
Eye contact
Natural pace
Potential for disaster
Difficulty in organizing
Lack of visual aids
Situations appropriate for each
source of speech
Sources Situation
Speaking from points Conference presentation
Presentation at business meeting
University lecture
Memorizing First few words of presentation
Short introduction of a speaker
Reading Press conference
Quotation within a presentation
Complex wording within presentation
Speaking off the cuff Answering a question
Asking a question
Voice quality

You should vary your voice, so it can be more interesting for
your audience. You can vary your voice in at least three ways:
speed: Speak at a normal speed, faster, more slowly, and you can stop
completely! You can also pause to get your audience's attention.
tone: Change the pitch of your voice. Speak in a high tone or speak in
a low tone.
volume: you can speak at a normal volume, loudly and you can speak
quietly. Lowering your voice and speaking quietly can attract your
audience's interest.

The important point is not to speak in the same, flat voice throughout
your presentation. This will put your audience to sleep.


Face the audience and speak loudly and clearly

Dont look at your slides makes you to speak to the screen.
This quiets your voice and breaks your contact with the
audience.
Look at slides on your laptop screen in front of you
If you must look at the main screen, look at it quickly and then
face the audience.
Make simple slides with short text, so you wont have trouble
knowing where you are when you quickly look at the screen.


Think about your presentation goals

In conference talks you should have at least two goals:
1. leave your audience with a clear picture of your
contribution,
2. make them want to read your paper.

Focus on the main points
Your audience is not going to remember details. So, less is
more.
You do not need to provide all the background on how you
reached this interpretation.
You do not need to defend the validity of your idea.
You don't need to give a literature review.
Give short, take-home points that theyll remember. They can
always read your paper later, but if you dont interest them,
they will not read it.
Don't summarize popular ideas.
Don't assume that a critic familiar to you is familiar to
everyone else.
Consider the audience to whom you are speaking.
Think about your audience

Most audiences should be targeted in layers:
some are experts in your specific area,
some are experts in the general area
others know little or nothing.
Who is most important to you? Can you still leave others with
something? For example, target the body to experts, but
make the prediction and summary to everybody.


Timeline showing presenter reaching multiple
audiences by beginning at surface of the topic, diving
into a subject, and then surfacing to gather entire
audience.
Audience attention
Dont try to say too much, use handouts for
all supplemental materials.
Never go longer than 45 minutes most
peoples maximum attention span.
If you exceed this limit, youll lose them at the
crucial point; your conclusion.


Have a timing device

Use a watch or cell phone with a timing function.
PowerPoints Presenter Tools has a stopwatch. The
problem is remembering to start the stopwatch at the
beginning of your talk.
Develop your sense of timing by always using the same slide
format.
Decide in advance which slides you can skip
As a beginning speaker, dont leave your outline
Dont try to do something unplanned during a talk.
Practice telling a joke or a story and make your audience
think you just thought of it

A short conference talk outline

Title/author/university (1 slide)
Abstract (1 slide) -Give the basic problem and answer.
Outline (1 slide) -Give the talk structure.
Motivation and Problem Statement (1-2 slides) -Why does
anyone care?
Related Work (0-1 slides) -Talk briefly about this, or you can
eliminate this section and refer people to your paper.
Methods (1 slide) -Cover quickly in short talks and refer
people to your paper.
Results (4-6 slides) -Present key results with implications. This
is the main body of the talk. Do not cover all the results. Cover
the key result well.
Summary (1 slide)
Future Work (0-1 slides)
Backup Slides (0-3 slides)
Using quotes in your speech
If you quote another source, pause and indicate the quote by saying
"quote . . . . . end quote."
Don't use long quotes or quote too much material. Your audience
wants your ideas, not what you have found from others.
If it is necessary to include long quotes, give the audience a
handout
Read the speech out loud as you revise.
Be careful criticizing other scholars.

About PowerPoint
PowerPoint saves time compared to writing on the whiteboard.
Dont use all PowerPoints fades, transitions, backgrounds and sound
effects.

Talk to the audience, not the screen
One of the worst presenter mistakes is to face the screen while talking.
If you do this, the audience will be looking at your back, and they
won't be able to hear you.

Prepare for computer problems
many things can go wrong with the computer, the projector, the
software, the connector cables, your USB, or your presentation.
Dont assume that what works on a PC will work on a Mac.
Dont assume your host will have the same version of PowerPoint that
you do.

Bring backup
Begin making backups several days before the talk.
Use a USB, a CDROM, or some other common format.
Internet backup isn't reliable, you can't be sure you'll have a
connection.

Bring printed notes or outlines
If the computer or the projector dies in the middle of your talk, you'll
have no time to fix it.
Be prepared to deliver your talk without the slides. Bring printed notes.


Other presentation problems

Someone asks a question about an issue you plan to discuss
later.
Answer the question briefly, and say you plan to go into detail later.

You lose your thought in mid-sentence.
Smile, say "excuse me" and start again.

You plan to go through a handout page by page but people
are moving ahead of your speech.
Don't give handouts until after the presentation is over.
Give people a rough idea of where different parts are located, then
people are more likely to stay with you.

Your throat dries out
Roll a tiny piece of paper into a small ball and place it between your
gum and your facial tissue in the back of your mouth. It will stimulate
the flow of saliva.
Someone starts a private conversation while you are
speaking.
First, ask if there are questions.
Second, ask if you can do anything to clarify.
If they will not stop, continue your presentation but move
nearer to them. Lower your voice or pause.

Notice your audience and respond to their needs

Take control of the environment

Distribute copies of your paper
Conference presenters can use humor to help the audience:
Remember the main points
See the big picture
Retain information longer
Interact with members of the audience
Present a sensitive idea without the audience getting
angry
Feel free to express themselves
Humor takes practice
You need to make a connection with the audience by
promoting interaction and openness.
You can develop humor by talking to some of the audience
before the presentation
Inappropriate humor for conferences:

Dont do the following in conference presentations:
1. Use prepared jokes that have no connection to your
purpose
2. Read your jokes and stories.
3. Laugh at your own jokes; or start laughing before you tell
them.
4. Announce that you are going to tell a joke; and apologize
if it is bad.
5. Criticize the audience for not laughing.
6. Tell stories that make fun of others or make them look
bad.
7. Act like you are better than others.
8. Use humor that the audience may not understand.
9. Embarrass people.
10. Tell dirty stories.
Using PowerPoint at
Conferences
Dont Write Everything and Read
Your PowerPoint presentation should:
Clarify ideas
Emphasize key points
Show relationships
Provide visual information to ensure the audience
understands your message

Slides Should be Short
Slides help you, and your audience, follow the flow of
the talk.
Not too full: 6 lines of text per slide is enough; 9 lines is
a lot; 12 lines is unreadable.
Bullet points should be a few words, not complete
sentences.
If you need more space, use more slides.
Use Big Type
.
Change the font size in the Preferences of the browser,
when using a web presentation.
Determining Font Size
Your audience may be look at the screen from
70 feet away.
Fonts should be 24 points or larger
Choosing a Font
From a distance, youll notice that the serif (Times)
font and the narrow or condensed font are more
difficult to read. Dont sacrifice readability for style.
Your job is to communicate.

Use the Correct Font for Easy
Reading
For handouts or take-home material, use a serif font.
For projecting on a screen, using a slide, overhead
or multimedia projector, use a sans serif font.
Because serif fonts can look fuzzy when projected.

Choosing a color
Yellow with black letters is considered the most readable.
Color blindness
Unwanted light affects color contrast by turning dark reds
and greens much lighter.
About 10% of people have difficulty with reds and greens.
Use contrasting colors
A dark background with light text is easily readable
Use drop shadows
Avoid busy backgrounds
Avoid using red text
AVOID ALL CAPS!

Choose White or Light Colored
Slide Backgrounds
Dark text on light colored slides can usually be read
with lights on.
Avoid dark images that wont show up well on a
screen.
Be aware that sunlight shining directly on your
screen will make it less visible.
Presenting with Charts
Simplify charts
Changing the chart format
How do you know when to use which chart? That depends
on how well youve stated the message.
Your heading should always tell people what you want
them to look for on a chart.
Choosing the chart
Once you have an action statement as a heading, look at
the verbs in the statement to get an idea of the best chart
to use to present your data.

Look for a key word
Grow
Decline
Trends



Line charts are best when a variable has more than
four or five data point.
The slope of the line quickly tells the audience the
direction of the trends.



Line chart
Showing Change Over Time
Look for a key word
Ranks
Compares
Highest profit
The lowest interest rate
The most products sold
Rank variables from largest to smallest

Bar charts are often the best way to compare a set of
individual items or several sets of related items.
The bars length corresponds to its ranking; the bars label
identifies the item.


Bar chart
Comparing Items at One Point in Time
Comparing Parts of a Whole
Look for key words
Percentage
Portion
Share

The number of pie slices should not be more than
five, and each slice should be easy to see and
interpret.
Pie chart
Comparing Data by Geographic Location

Look for key words
Country
Area

Distinguish among regions by using different colors,
shadings, or symbols.
Segmented bar chart
Additional Tips for Graphs and Charts
1. Show one message per chart. Make the message the heading.
2. Make the chart easy to read. Make the most important text largest, the
most important data lines or sections darkest.
3. Be accurate. Always start a numerical axis at zero. Compare only like
variables.
4. Eliminate all unnecessary details.
5. Use no more than four colors per visual.
6. To focus attention, use color, shading, or images such as arrows to highlight
key words or concepts.
7. Write in upper and lower case. Words written in all capitals letters are hard
to read.
8. Make bars and columns wider than the spaces between them.
Dont Get too Technical
The more advanced the technology, the more likely
there are to be technical problems. Speakers often
come in at the last minute and are completely
destroyed when their equipment doesnt work. It
creates panic for everyone. Always send a copy of
your presentation to the conference office in
advance so it can be loaded and tested.

Dont Apologize for Errors
Dont apologize for poor English speaking, it wastes
time and adds no value to your talk. Dont comment
on spelling, grammatical, or other mechanical errors
in your presentation. Most of the audience wont
notice unless you apologize.

Buy a Laser Pointer and Wireless
Mouse
They are inexpensive, and are extremely useful. It
is helpful to be able to change pages from across
the room and point out key graphs and charts.

The Last Thing on Your PowerPoint
At the end of your presentation while answering
questions, leave up a contact info slide containing
your name, e-mail, address, and website URL related
to the talk if you have one.

Handling Q&A

Why Are Questions and Answers
Important?
Questions and answers are important for several reasons:
Get attention
Create interest
Get feedback
Make points easy to remember
Create audience interaction
Promote new thoughts
To get comfortable with Q&A sessions and questions,
start asking questions throughout your presentations.
Before the Presentation
Prepare for criticism by telling your ideas to a critical
friend.
Bring a list of references when answering questions.
Take notes of questions and suggestions.
Dont be afraid to say you dont know the answer to
a particular question.
If you are using slides, save several slides and use
them to answer expected questions.

At the End of the Presentation
There are two endings to a presentation with a final Q&A
session.
Example:
At this point, I want to get your opinion on this approach.
This side of the room first.
The second close is after the questions to summarize the
main points of your presentation.
Example:
As you can see from the questions and comments, this topic
is confusing and we dont have all the answers but here is
what you can do for now...
After the Presentation
Sometimes question time is so exciting that you cant
answer all the questions with the time you have. Tell
people ways to contact you and when and how you
will respond. Think of ways to share these questions
and answers with all members of the audience
through an e-mail list or Web site.

12 Ways to Encourage Audience
Questions
1. Announce the question session in an open,
conversational way.
2. Design questions into your content and delivery:
Title: Why Knowledge Management? and Why Now?
Opening: What is the biggest problem facing
researchers today?
Content: My presentation is about four key questions.
Ending: Considering these facts, how can you not act?
3. Ask a question, pause and then give the answer
yourself.
4. Bring up questions you have been asked by other
audience.
5. Let the audience know in the beginning there is a
Q&A session, and when it is and how long it is.
6. Provide a seating arrangement where the audience
can see each other.
7. List questions in the presentation announcement or
brochure.
8. Provide a white board for the audience to write a
question at any time. Start your Q&A session by
answering these questions.

9. Pass out paper for the audience to submit their
questions. They may forget what they were
going to ask earlier. This is often used at public
meetings and when the audience is large.
10. Dont ask for feedback and then start to pack up
your laptop or your notes. This sends the clear
signal that you are done and ready to go.
11. Arrange for someone in the audience to ask the
first question to start the process.
12. Ask yourself what questions you hope no one asks
and then prepare to answer them.

Why Do People Ask Questions?
Because they want to know the answer
Because they want to make a point
To impress the audience
To see if you know the answer
To see how you handle questions and the stress
To attack your methodology
To make you look bad (for example, if they are
competing with you for a job)
Some ask questions that are in fact a personal attack
(but not often)
Dont let an interesting but unrelated question start
you on a new speech.
Dont let your presentation continue on thinking the
Q&A time is extra time for your presentation.
Consider questions as an honor your presentation.
Good ideas create questions. Boring presentations
make people leave.
3 Step Template for Answering
Questions
1. Listen to the entire question before you
answer
2. Thank each person for asking the question.
3. Then follow the template below.

RepeatRespondReview

Additional Tips on Handling
Questions
Ask people to stand up when they ask a question.
This does two things:

1. It shows you who is asking the question
2. Makes it easier for the audience to hear the
question

What If You Dont Know the
Answer?
Suggest someone in the audience more qualified answer
the question. Professor M. has studied this extensively.
Delay, Thats a good question...
Ask a question: Can you clarify what you mean?
Admit you dont know but will research it for them.
Repeat the question in a different way: Is this what you
are asking? [Then say a question you can answer]
If you dont have a good answer after these delaying tactics,
say: Lets talk about that after my talk.

What If You Can Think of Nothing
to Say?
1. Smile: People always like people who smile.
2. Tell a story: Stories take time and you can be thinking
about your next point.
3. Change the topic of the question to something you
know about.
If you dont know the answer to a question, than
answer a different question.

What If You Dont Understand the
Question Because of the Speakers Poor
English?
If you dont understand the English, ask the speaker
to repeat the question.
If the questioner still asks and you still dont
understand, say, Great question, but it quite specific
to your field and does not concern everyone here,
see me after the talk and we can go into more detail
about it.
Quickly move to another question or conclude your
session.

What If Someone Keeps
Interrupting You While You Are
Talking?
If its just a clarifying question and its short,
answer it and keep speaking.
If somebody keeps making long, loud comments,
or begins to argue with you in the middle of your
talk. This can be very stressful, especially if you are
a grad student or new professor.

Dont Let Your Time Get Wasted
Speech times dont get extended for time wasted by
the audience. You need to develop a strategy for
keeping control. The best ways to do this follow.
look at whoever is chairing the conference session, or your
sponsor at a job talk.
you can wait politely for a pause in the attack, and then say
as calmly as possible something like: Thank you for your
comment. Id like to respond, but if you dont mind Id like
to wait for the question period.

Your Final Solution to An Attacking
Attendee
You need to say loudly but firmly, as strongly as
you can: Sir, please allow me to finish my talk.
Then, proceed and ignore further interruptions
from that person.

Remain After Your Presentation
Session
Be available to answer additional questions if you
can.
Make notes about the questions, suggestions, new
thoughts you can use these comments to improve a
paper for publication and your reviewers may be in
the audience.
Notes
Isaac Asimov, Foreword to Linus Pauling: A Man and His Science, Anthony Serafini (San
Jose: to Excel, 2000), p. xiv.
Michael White and John Gribbin, Einstein: A Life in Science (New York: Penguin, 1995), pp.
164165.
Ruth Sime, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996),
pp. 9697.
D.H. Frisch, private communication to Abraham Pais, Reminiscences from the Postwar
Years, Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume, ed. by A.P. French and P.J. Kennedy (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 247.
Richard P. Feynman, Surely, Youre Joking, Mr. Feynman! (New York: Norton & Company,
1985), p. 166.
Michael Faraday, letter to Benjamin Abbott on 11 June 1813, The Selected Correspondence of
Michael Faraday, ed. by L.P. Williams, R. Fitzgerald, and O. Stallybrass (Cambridge:
Cambridge, 1971), pp. 6061.
Lise Meitner, Looking Back, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 20 (November 1964),
pp. 27.
David L. Goodstein, Richard P. Feynman, Teacher, Most of the Good Stuff: Memories of
Richard Feynman, ed. by Laurie M. Brown and John S. Rigden (New York: American
Institute of Physics, 1993), p. 123.
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