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This document summarizes key aspects of social development related to the self and others. It discusses the development of self-awareness and self-concept from infancy through adolescence, including the individual, relational, and collective aspects of self. Factors that influence self-esteem and identity development are also examined, such as family, peers, culture and ethnicity. The document also reviews how children develop an understanding of others' intentions, social norms, mental states and psychological traits from early childhood through adolescence.
This document summarizes key aspects of social development related to the self and others. It discusses the development of self-awareness and self-concept from infancy through adolescence, including the individual, relational, and collective aspects of self. Factors that influence self-esteem and identity development are also examined, such as family, peers, culture and ethnicity. The document also reviews how children develop an understanding of others' intentions, social norms, mental states and psychological traits from early childhood through adolescence.
This document summarizes key aspects of social development related to the self and others. It discusses the development of self-awareness and self-concept from infancy through adolescence, including the individual, relational, and collective aspects of self. Factors that influence self-esteem and identity development are also examined, such as family, peers, culture and ethnicity. The document also reviews how children develop an understanding of others' intentions, social norms, mental states and psychological traits from early childhood through adolescence.
CADV 352 Spring 2014 Isabella Lanza The Sense of Self Awareness of the self as differentiated from other people is crucial for childrens development
Individual Self - Aspects of the self that make a person unique and separate from others
Relational Self - Aspects of the self that involve connections to other people and develop out of interactions with others
Collective Self - A persons concept of self within a group, such as a group based on race or gender The Sense of Self Developmental Origins of Self Concept Babies as young as 18 weeks of age will look at their reflection in a mirror but do not realize that they are looking at themselves Rouge test as assessment of self-recognition Recognize own image by age 2 The Sense of Self Developmental Origins of Self Concept Harter - 6 stages in the development of self- descriptions 3-4 years - observable physical features, preferences, possessions, social characteristics
5-7 years - competencies 8-10 - more complex descriptions - focus on abilities and interpersonal attributes The Sense of Self Developmental Origins of Self Concept Harter - 6 stages in the development of self- descriptions contd Early adolescence - interpersonal attributes, social skills, competencies, emotions; recognize different selves in different contexts
Mid adolescence - introspective and preoccupied with what others think of them; begin to question self descriptions, especially when there are contradictions
Late adolescence - emphasize personal beliefs, values, and moral standards; think about future and possible selves Self-Perceptions Global Self-Esteem Self-esteem overall evaluation of worth based on self-concept (perception of attributes/traits) Children who have high self-esteem view themselves as competent, capable, and are pleased with who they are
Individuals with high self-esteem are happier than those with low self-esteem
High self-esteem in childhood is linked to a variety of positive adjustment outcomes including school success, good relationships with parents and peers, and less anxiety and depression But, direction of effects is unclear Self-Perceptions
Cognitive development and social awareness contributes to development of self-worth/self- esteem Self-esteem becomes more complex and multidimensional across childhood Susan Harter 5 dimensions of self-worth: Scholastic Ability Athletic Competence Physical Appearance Behavioral Conduct Social Acceptance Self-Perceptions Domain-Specific Perceptions Sample Items from the Harter Self-Perception Profile for Children
Really true for me Sort of true for me Sort of true for me Really true for me
Scholastic competence
Some kids feel like they are just as smart as other kids their age BUT Some kids arent so sure if they are as smart
Athletic competence
Some kids are very good at sports BUT Some kids are not very good at sports
Global self-worth
Some kids are often unhappy with themselves BUT Other kids are pretty pleased with themselves
Self-Perceptions Learning Self-Appraisal Children under the age of 8 tend to have unrealistically positive self-appraisals Self-appraisals become more realistic across development as children incorporate feedback from others and compare themselves to others
Children also distinguish among different kinds of competence and view themselves as better in some domains than others
Self-appraisals in each domain affects global self- esteem Self-Perceptions Gender Variations in Global Self-Esteem Girls have lower global self-esteem than boys beginning in middle childhood and this difference increases in adolescence Why? Self-Perceptions Social Determinants of Self-Esteem Family Influences
Childrens higher self-esteem associated with parents who are
Accepting, affectionate, and involved with their children, set clear and consistent rules, use noncoercive disciplinary tactics, and consider the childs views in family decisions Self-Perceptions Social Determinants of Self-Esteem Influence of Peers Peers become increasingly influential across development, especially in the domains of Physical appearance, popularity, and athletic competence Public domain more influential than private domain
Identity Formation Identity - The definition of oneself as a discrete, separate entity Erikson Identity achievement vs. Identity confusion Marcia formulation Level of Exploration
High Low High Identity achievement Identity foreclosure L e v e l
o f
C o m m i t m e n t
Low Identity moratorium Identity diffusion
Identity Formation Marcia Identity achievement - associated with high self-esteem, cognitive flexibility, more mature moral reasoning, clearer goal setting, and better goal achievement Identity foreclosure - more authoritarian and inflexible and more susceptible to extreme ideologies and movements, such as cults or radical political movements Identity moratorium - anxious and intense, often have strained or ambivalent relationships with their parents and other authority figures; better adjusted than foreclosed or diffused identity status Identity diffusion - viewed as the least mature in their identity development. Some are delinquents and abuse drugs; others are lonely or depressed; still others are angry and rebellious Identity Formation What influences identity development?
Puberty Signals break from childhood Awareness of self as a sexual being
Changes in cognitive functioning Abstract reasoning influences thinking about the self Ability to recognize different selves in different contexts Identity Formation Ethnic Identity Recognition of being a member of a particular race or ethnic group Faces of Ethnic Identity
Ethnic knowledge Children know that their ethnic group has distinguishing characteristics including behaviors, traits, customs, styles, and language.
Ethnic self-identification
Children categorize themselves as a member of a particular ethnic group. Ethnic constancy Children understand that the distinctive features of their ethnic group are stable across time and situation and that membership in the group does not change.
Ethnic behaviors Children enact and endorse behavior patterns that distinguish their ethnic group.
Ethnic preferences Children feel positive about belonging to their ethnic group and prefer their ethnic groups behavior patterns.
Identity Formation Ethnic Identity Development of Ethnic Identity Infancy - babies look longer at faces of their own race than faces of other races
Preschoolers have a global understanding of their culture and use ethnic labels in a rote fashion; limited understanding of ethnic group constancy
Early elementary school understand that identity does not change over time or context Identity Formation Ethnic Identity Development of Ethnic Identity
Adolescence - most active period of ethnic- identity development along with exploration of general identity
Having achieved a clear, positive ethnic identity is related to high selfesteem, more optimism, more social competence, more positive feelings toward the ethnic group Identity Formation Ethnic Identity Biracial Children and Youth Adolescents who identify with one race or the other are better adjusted than those with no clear identity Bicultural Identity
When Mexican American adolescents rate themselves on two 5-point scaleslevel of European American cultural identification and level of Mexican American cultural identificationtheir scores can be used to place them in the four ethnic identity groups shown here. Identity Formation Ethnic Identity Factors that Promote Ethnic Identity Parental Socialization Impart knowledge about cultural traditions, instill pride in their ethnic heritage, and prepare children for prejudice and discrimination based on their ethnicity
Peer Socialization Spend time with members of own ethnic group, which contributes to more stable ethnic identity Adolescents who spend time with members of other ethnic groups have more mature ethnic identities Developing Knowledge about Others Early Understanding of Intentions and Norms Age 1 - understand that peoples actions are intentional and goal directed 18 months - recognize simple social norms End of second year can describe scripts for social routines Script - a mental representation of an event or situation of daily life including the order in which things are expected to happen and how one should behave in that event or situation Developing Knowledge about Others Later Understanding of Mental States: Theory of Mind Theory of Mind - Childrens understanding that people have mental states such as thoughts, beliefs, and desires that affect their behavior. It allows children to get beyond peoples observable actions and appearances and respond to their unseen states.
Developing Knowledge about Others Understanding Psychological Trait Labels Preschoolers describe others in terms of physical characteristics; gradually use psychological descriptions Age 5-7 - recognize that people have psychological or personality attributes that distinguish them from each other and are stable enough to predict how people will act at different times and in different situations Age 9-10 - describe another persons actions less in terms of good or bad and more in terms of stable psychological traits Adolescence - realize that people are full of complexities and contradictions Developing Knowledge about Others Advancing Social Understanding Child Abilities Children who have higher levels of social understanding also do better on standard intelligence tests and exhibit more frequent prosocial behavior, such as helping and sharing, on the playground and in the classroom Developing Knowledge about Others Advancing Social Understanding Parental Influences Children in families who frequently talk about mental states are more likely to succeed on theory-of-mind tasks Helpful when parents conversations with their children include explanations of the causes and effects of mental states, using words such as because, how, and why Developing Knowledge about Others Advancing Social Understanding Siblings and Friends
Two important types of interaction Pretend Play Dispute Resolution
Interactions also involve discussions about shared concerns, interests, and goals Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Stereotype - A general label applied to individuals based solely on their membership in a racial, ethnic, or religious group, without appreciation that individuals within the group vary
Stereotype consciousness - The knowledge that other people have beliefs based on ethnic stereotypes Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Prejudice - A set of attitudes by which an individual defines all members of a group negatively Evident by age 5 Age 5-9 decrease in prejudice as children begin to appreciate the ways in which different groups are similar and that that not all individuals within a group are the same Late childhood to adolescence prejudice increases again because of focus on personal and ethnic identity Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Expression of Prejudice
Early childhood - avoidance and social exclusion
Late childhood and adolescence - conflict and hostility May also begin to hide true feelings at this time Implicit prejudice Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Determinants of Stereotyping and Prejudice
May be biologically primed Showing adults faces from a different race activates neural activity in the amygdalaa region of the brain associated with fear, anger, and sadness
Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Determinants of Stereotyping and Prejudice
Social factors Prejudiced messages from parents, peers, schools, and media
Researchers in one study found that parents racial socialization began by the time their children were only 18 months old and predicted the childrens racial attitudes at ages 3 and 4 years
Children may develop prejudices even if their parents do not express them because of peer and media influences Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Promoting Stereotypes and Prejudice
Prejudice is more likely when groups are more distinct This is why societies sometimes increase a groups perceptual distinctiveness
Prejudice is increased when group activities are segregated Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Can Stereotypes and Prejudice be Reduced? Increase contact between members of groups who are prejudiced toward each other Particularly effective if work toward a shared goal; Reduce competitiveness
Point out the individual characteristics of members of the other group Minimizing stereotypes of racial and ethnic groups in media such as books, television, and movies