LOGIC

ITS HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS

Presented by Jyothsna

LOGIC
Logic studies the principles of valid reasoning, inference, and

demonstration.

Formal logic was developed in ancient times in China, India, and Greece. Greek logic, particularly Aristotelian logic, found wide application and acceptance in science and mathematics. The earliest form of logic defined by Aristotle - Theory of syllogism. However, the development of the modern so-called "symbolic" or "mathematical" logic during mid nineteenth period is the most significant in the two-thousand-year history of logic, and is arguably one of the most important and remarkable events in human intellectual history.

ARISTOTLE (384 322 BCE)

Born in 384 BCE in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modernday Thessaloniki. He introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants Aristotle describes science as philosophy coextensive with reasoning. All science is either practical, poetical or theoretical By practical science, he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other Roman copy in marble of a fine arts; by theoretical science, he means physics, mathematics and Greek bronze bust of metaphysics. Aristotle by Lisippus,
C. 330 BCE.

ARISTOTLE
He was the first formal logician who gave the principles of reasoning using variables to show the underlying of logical forms of arguments The details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established. The biographies of Aristotle written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points. In physical science - anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy - aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. Also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima(On the Soul) and Poetics.

SYLLOGISM
A syllogism is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllogism

GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ

1646 1716 A.D
His father died when Leibniz was six years old, and from that point on he was raised by his mother. Her teachings influenced Leibniz's philosophical thoughts in his later life his father's library enabled him to study a wide variety of advanced philosophical and theological works ones that he would not have otherwise been able to read until his college years. bachelor's degree in philosophy in December 1662 Leibniz earned his master's degree in philosophy on February 7, 1664. He published and defended a dissertation Specimen Quaestionum Philosophicarum ex Jure collectarum, arguing for both a theoretical and a pedagogical relationship between philosophy and law, in December 1664. Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666

GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ

Leibniz is credited, along with Sir Isaac Newton, with the discovery of infinitesimal calculus (that comprises differential and integral calculus). Leibniz was the first to use the term analysis situs,[58] later used in the 19th century to refer to what is now known as topology. He devised a new theory of motion(dynamics) based on kinetic energy and potential energy, which posited space as relative, whereas Newton was thoroughly convinced that space was absolute. Much of Leibniz's work went on to have a great impact on the field of psychology. he urged that theory be combined with practical application, and thus has been claimed as the father of applied science.

LEIBNIZ
Leibniz is the most important logician between Aristotle and 1847, when George Boole and Augustus De Morgan each published books that began modern formal logic. Leibniz enunciated the principal properties of what we now call conjunction, disjunction, negation, identity, set inclusion, and the empty set. The principles of Leibniz's logic and, arguably, of his whole philosophy, reduce to two: All our ideas are compounded from a very small number of simple ideas, which form the alphabet of human thought. Complex ideas proceed from these simple ideas by a uniform and symmetrical combination, analogous to arithmetical multiplication. The formal logic that emerged early in the 20th century also requires, at minimum, unary negation and quantified variables ranging over some universe of discourse. Leibniz published nothing on formal logic in his lifetime; most of what he wrote on the subject consists of working drafts. In his book History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell went so far as to claim that Leibniz had developed logic in his unpublished writings to a level which was reached only 200 years later.

MODERN LOGIC
Boole's goals were "to go under, over, and beyond" Aristotle's logic by 1) providing it with mathematical foundations involving equations, 2) extending the class of problems it could treatsolving equations was added to assessing validity, and 3) expanding the range of applications it could handlee.g. from propositions having only two terms to those having arbitrarily many. First, in the realm of foundations, Boole reduced Aristotle's four propositional forms to one form, the form of equations-by itself a revolutionary idea. Second, in the realm of logic's problems, Boole's addition of equation solving to logic-another revolutionary ideainvolved Boole's doctrine that Aristotle's rules of inference (the "perfect syllogisms") must be supplemented by rules for equation solving. Third, in the realm of applications, Boole's system could handle multi-term propositions and arguments whereas Aristotle could handle only twotermed subject-predicate propositions and arguments. For example, Aristotle's system could not deduce "No quadrangle that is a square is a rectangle that is a rhombus" from "No square that is a quadrangle is a rhombus that is a rectangle" or from "No rhombus that is a rectangle is a square that is a quadrangle".

GEORGE BOOLE
1815 1864
His father, John Boole (17791848), was a tradesman in Lincoln,[2] and gave him lessons. He had an elementary school education, but little further formal and academic teaching. He was self-taught in modern languages.[3] At age 16 Boole became the breadwinner for his parents and three younger siblings, taking up a junior teaching position in Doncaster, at Heigham's School. Boole's status as mathematician was recognized by his appointment in 1849 as the first professor of mathematics atQueen's College, Cork in Ireland. He met his future wife, Mary Everest, there in 1850 while she was visiting her uncle John Ryall who was Professor of Greek. Boole was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1857;[8] and received honorary degrees of LL.D. from the University of Dublin andOxford University

On 8 December 1864, Boole died of an attack of fever, ending in pleural effusion

GEORGE BOOLE
The Treatise on Differential Equationsappeared in 1859, and was followed, the next year, by a Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences, a sequel to the former work The second part of the Laws of Thought contained a corresponding attempt to discover a general method in probabilities. Here the goal was algorithmic: from the given probabilities of any system of events, to determine the consequent probability of any other event logically connected with the those events.

CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE

1839 1914