Organizational Behavior:

Perception

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Food Survey
Last month, a world-wide survey was conducted by the UN. The only question asked was... : "Would you please give your honest opinion about solutions to the food shortage in the rest of the world?" The survey was a huge failure because...:

1. 2.
3. 4. 5.

6.
7.

In Africa they didn't know what "food" means. In Eastern Europe they didn't know what "honest" means. In Western Europe they didn't know what "shortage" means. In China they didn't know what "opinion" means. In the Middle East they didn't know what "solution" means. In South America they didn't know what "please" means. In the USA they didn't know what "the rest of the world" means
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Perceptual Process Model

Environmental Stimuli Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting

Selective Attention
Organization and Interpretation Emotions and Behavior
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Perception: A Social Information Processing Model

Selective Attention/ Comprehension

Stage 1

Encoding and Simplification

Stage 2

Storage and Retention

Stage 3

Retrieval and Response

Stage 4

Competing environmental stimuli: * People * Events * Objects

A B C D E F

A
Interpretation C and categorization F

Memory C

Judgments and decisions

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Social Information Processing Model of Perception

Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension - Attention is the process of becoming aware of something or someone - People pay attention to salient stimuli Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification - Encoding is the process of interpreting environmental stimuli by using information contained in cognitive categories and schemata - The same information can be interpreted differently by people due to individual differences Stage 3: Storage and Retention - Encoded information or stimuli is sent to long- term memory - Long-term memory is composed of three compartments containing categories of information about events, semantic materials, and people Stage 4: Retrieval and Response - Information is retrieved from memory when people make judgments and decisions
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Factors That Influence Perception

Characteristics of the Perceiver Values and attitudes Motives Interests Experience Expectations Perceptual context Time Work setting Social setting
Perception

Characteristics of the Target

Structural beauty Novelty and Familiarity Motion and Change Repetition Intensity Sounds Size Contrast and Background Proximity

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Attribution Process
Internal Attribution
Perception that outcomes are due to motivation/ability rather than situation or fate

External Attribution
Perception that outcomes are due to situation or fate rather than the person

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Kelleys Model of Attribution

Basic Premise: An attribution is based on the consensus, distinctiveness,
and consistency of the observed behavior.

Consensus: Involves comparing an individuals behavior with that of his or

her peers. Low consensus indicates an individual is different from peers.

Distinctiveness:

Involves comparing a persons behavior or accomplishments on one task with the behavior or accomplishments from other tasks. Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situation where the current behavior or result is significantly different from typical behavior or results on other tasks.

Consistency: Involves comparing a persons behavior or accomplishments

on a given task over time. - High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same, time after time. Predictions: Internal or personal attributions are made when a behavior is associated with low consensus and distinctiveness, and high consistency. - External or environmental attributions are made when a behavior is related with high consensus and distinctiveness, and low consistency.
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Consensus
Low High

B C D People

B C D People

Source: KA Brown, Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis, Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Distinctiveness
High Low

B C Tasks

B C Tasks

Source: KA Brown, Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis, Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Consistency
Low High

Time
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Time

Source: KA Brown, Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis, Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p. 56. Used with permission.

Attribution Errors
Fundamental Attribution Error
Attributing behavior of other people to internal factors (their motivation/ability)

Self-Serving Bias
Attributing our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle

Supervisor forms expectations

Employees behavior matches expectations

Expectations affect supervisors behavior

Supervisors behavior affects employee

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Identity: Who Am I?
Social Identity Organizational Identity Personal Identity
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Perceptual Biases and Errors in Decision Making

1. 2. 3. 4. Stereotype : A stereotype is an individuals set of beliefs about the characteristics of a group of people. Halo: A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then uses the impression to bias ratings about the object. Leniency: A personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion. Central Tendency: The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral.

5.

Recency Effects: The tendency to remember recent information. Most recent information dominates perceptions, If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively.
Contrast Effects: The tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects. Primacy: First impressions Projection: Believing other people are similar to you
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

6.

7. 8.

Perceptual Biases and Errors in Decision Making 1. Overconfidence Error 2. Availability Heuristic 3. Representative Heuristic 4. Escalation of Commitment Error 5. Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 6. Confirmation Bias 7. Randomness Bias 8. Hindsight Bias
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

The Stereotyping Process

Develop categories and assign traits
Assign person to category based on observable info Assign categorys traits to the person Professors are absent-minded

Our instructor is a professor Our instructor is absent-minded

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Improving Perceptual Accuracy

Diversity Initiatives Know Yourself Empathize With Others

Improving Perceptual Accuracy

Compare Perceptions With Others

Postpone Impression Formation

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Know Yourself (Johari Window) Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham

Feedback Known to Self Known to Others Disclosure Unknown to Self

Open Area Open Area Hidden Area Hidden

Blind Area Blind Area

Unknown to Others

Area

Unknown Unknown Area Area

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Applications in Organizations

Employment Interview Performance Expectations Performance Evaluation Organizational Communication Employee Effort Employee Loyalty
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Link Between

Perception
and

Individual Decision Making

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Rational Model of Decision Making

TECH Set Decision Criteria Problem Identify and Define Problem Criteria Weight the Criteria

A1 A2
A3

+ A1 A2 A1 A2 Choice Make Optimal Decision

A4
An Generate Alternatives

An

An

Evaluate Alternatives

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Assumptions of the Model

One: Four:

Problem Clarity
Two:

Constant Preferences
Five:

Known Options
Three:

No Constraints
Six:

Clear Preferences

Maximum Payoff

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

A Model of Bounded Rationality

Ascertain the Need for a Decision Set Satisficing Criteria Identify a Limited Set of Alternatives

Compare Alternatives Against Criteria

Select the First Good Enough Choice

Simplify the Problem

Expand Search for Alternatives

No

A Satisficing Alternative Exists

Yes

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

The Role of Intuition

Uncertainty Limited Facts and Data Time Less Scientific Predictability
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Decision-Making Styles
High

Tolerance for Ambiguity

Analytic

Conceptual

Directive

Behavioral

Low Rational

Way of Thinking

Intuitive

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Performance Evaluations

Reward Systems

Organizational Constraints
Historical Constraints

Formal Regulations

Time Constraints

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Time Orientation

The Value of Rationality

Cultural Differences
Groups or Individuals
Problem Identification

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Decision-Making and Ethics

Utilitarian

Rights

Justice

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.