THE PLANT CELL

Dagmar Stengel / Mike Guiry Dept. of Botany NUI, Galway

Lecture Overview
Common components: plant and animal cells Differences Details of plant cell components Cellular responses to the environment
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Figure 7.8 Overview of a plant cell

Plant cell TEM

Plant and animal cells:

Common cell components
Nucleus Mitochondria Endoplasmatic Reticulum Golgi apparatus Ribosomes Lysosomes and microbodies (peroxisomes and glyoxisomes) Plasma membrane Cytosol Microtubules and microfilaments (cytoskeleton)
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(Campbell pp.105-127)

So what is the difference?

1. 2. 3.

Vacuole Chloroplast Cell wall

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Vacuole
= Large membrane-bounded vesicle
may occupy up to 90% of cell volume

surrounded by membrane = tonoplast

Contains solutes dissolved in water Intracellular digestion Storage and osmotic regulation Storage: carbohydrates, organic acids, secondary products
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Chloroplast
= membrane-bounded plastid contains chlorophyll location of photosynthesis

Cell wall
rigid multi-layered surrounding of plant cell usually made up of polysaccharides
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Vacuoles
Vacuole and vesicle: membrane-bound sacs
Large: vacuole Small: vesicle Different types: Food vacuoles: engulfing or phagocytosis of food
particles (not in plants)

Contractile vacuoles: mainly in freshwater algae;

pump excess water out of cell

Central vacuole: surrounded by membrane called tonoplast

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Functions of Plant Vacuoles

Storage: organic compounds incl. Proteins K+ and Cl hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules

Recycle molecular components from organelles

metabolic by-products

pigments in petals to attract pollinators

substances to deter herbivores, poisons Involved in extension growth of plants
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Figure 7.15

The plant cell vacuole

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The Tonoplast
= single membrane surrounding the vacuole

Transmembrane electrochemical gradient achieved by proton-pumping ATPase special transport proteins facilitate transport across Tonoplast
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The Chloroplast
Usually lens-shaped Surrounded by double membrane internal membrane system arranged into flattened sacs (=thylakoids) thylakoids stacked forming grana (1 granum) 2 compartments: thylakoid space and stroma needed for photosynthesis

depending on light conditions, chloropasts can move within the cells e.g. to surface to catch more light in low light conditions

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Figure 7.18 The chloroplast, site of photosynthesis

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Chloroplast Function
- Photosynthesis contains green pigment chlorophyll

pigments of other colours (red, blue, yellow/brown)

pigments used in photosynthesis to produce sugars (carbohydrates)

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Chloroplasts: Origin
not related to endomembrane system

contain small amounts of DNA that program synthesis of own proteins = semi-autonomous organelles
belong to family of plastids
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Plastids
= family of organelles bounded by 2 external membranes Chloroplasts - photosynthetic; green due to chlorophyll content Chromoplasts: containing pigments other than chlorophyll (in fruits, leaves, flowers) Leucoplasts: involved in lipid biosynthesis

Amyloplasts: store starch (colourless)

Etioplasts: intermediate state in production of chloroplasts, in tissue exposed to light for the first time 16

Proplastids
in unspecialised cells

fate depends on location in the cell and the environment

E.g. proplastid becomes a chloroplast if exposed to light!

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Presence of Chloroplast genome and Double membrane has lead to Endosymbiont Theory: Chloroplasts arose as primitive photosynthetic organisms that colonized a non-photosynthetic cell
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The Cell Wall - Structure

almost all plant cells have a Primary Cell Wall thicker than plasmamembrane consists of long-chain polysaccharides (cellulose) composition varies between different species aggregated into bundles to form fibres and microfibrils 10-25 nm in diameter fibres in layers

great tensile strength

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Cell walls TEM

The Cell Wall Functions

thicker, stronger and more rigid than similar components around animal cells Responsible for:
nutrition osmoregulation growth intercellular communication
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Cell Wall - Functions

Cell adhesion, protection and support barrier against pathogens and deters herbivores dynamic nature of cell wall allows expansion and plant growth determines morphology communication between cells through plasmodesmata exchange of selected molecules and fluids Secondary cell wall may contain lignin for greater support unique cell wall adaptations: function and environment 22

Formation
Young cells: formation of thin, flexible cell wall (= primary cell wall) between primary cell walls of adjacent cells is middle lamella: - sticky polysaccharides (pectins) Mature cells: thickening of cell wall occurs either by hardening of substance of primary cell wall or by adding secondary cell wall between plasma membranes and primary wall
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Plasmodesmata (one Plasmodesma)

structures in which the membranes from adjacent cells connect through a pore in the cell wall link adjacent plasma membranes and cytoplasm
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Microbodies
single membrane-bound compartments for specific metabolic pathways
Glyoxysomes =special type of peroxisome in plant cells Common in fat-storing tissue of germinating seeds Contain enzymes that initiate conversion of fat to sugar Seeds contain oils - sugar means energy!
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How the environment affects a plant cell

Which environmental factors?

Water stress: high or low Temperature stress: high or low Light stress: high or low
Cellular responses to environmental stress Campbell 6th ed. Chapter 39

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Reponses to light
Light needed in photosynthesis
Response to low light: Chloroplast movement Synthesis of more pigments Response to high light: Chloroplast movement Reduction in pigment content Production of protective sun-screen pigments
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Why are plant cells important?

Oxygen budget: Animal (human!) Respiration

Biomass:

Food chain: Ecology Agriculture: animal and human nutrition Agriculture Medicine Industry

Useful substances:

Cell - Tissue - Organisms - Ecosystem

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Responses to water deficit

Effect: more water lost through transpiration than replaced from soil Response: - Closing stomata by changing turgor - Water deficit stimulates synthesis and release of plant hormone: Helps keep stomata closed - Change in leaf position: e.g. grasses - decrease in photosynthesis

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Responses to salt stress

e.g. excess of sodium chloride in the soil Effect: lowers water potential, leading to water deficit in plant cell: root may loose water rather than absorb it salts in high concentrations may be 30 toxic to plants

Salt stress
(contd)

Response:
Production of compatible solutes in cell: = Organic compounds that keep water potential lower than that of soil Decreases water loss But only specialised plants (halophytes) can tolerate this for long
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Responses to Heat Stress

Effect: Denaturation of enzymes Damage to metabolism increase in transpiration: causes further stress due to high water loss Response: cells begin to synthesise special proteins in large quantities: heat shock proteins protect enzymes from denaturation

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Responses to Cold Stress

Effect: change of fluidity of cell membranes Usually proteins and lipids move laterally in membrane Lipids become locked into crystalline structure Affects functions of membranes Alters transport across membranes
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Cold stress
(contd) Response: change lipid composition in membrane e.g. increase the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids

keeps membranes fluid at lower temperatures takes several days to do this:sharp changes in temperatures are harmful!

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Animal-plant interactions
Production and accumulation of pigments (colour!) to attract or deter Production of chemical defences, harmful substances e.g. production of aminoacid canavanine which is taken up by insect replaces arginine: disrupts functioning of insect metabolism results in death of herbivores 35