Analyzing Cost-Time Trade-Offs

There are always cost-time trade-offs in

project management.
You can completing a project early by hiring more
workers or running extra shifts.
There are often penalties if projects extend
beyond some specific date, and a bonus may be
provided for early completion.

Crashing a project means expediting some

activities to reduce overall project completion
time and total project costs.

Cost to Crash
To assess the benefit of crashing certain activities, either
from a cost or a schedule perspective, the project
manager needs to know the following times and costs.
Normal time (NT) is the time necessary to complete and
activity under normal conditions.
Normal cost (NC) is the activity cost associated with the
normal time.
Crash time (CT) is the shortest possible time to complete
an activity.
Crash cost (CC) is the activity cost associated with the
crash time.

Cost to Crash per Period

CC NC
NT CT

The Cost to Crash per Time Period =

Crash Cost Normal Cost

Normal Time Crash Time

Cost-Time Relationships in Cost Analysis

8000
Crash cost (CC)

Direct cost (dollars)

7000

Linear cost assumption

6000
5200
5000

Estimated costs for a

2-week reduction,
from 10 weeks to
8 weeks

4000
3000
0

Normal cost (NC)

|
5

|
6

(Crash time)

|
7

|
9

|
10

|
11

(Normal time)
Time (weeks)

Minimizing Costs
The objective of cost analysis is to
determine the project schedule that
minimizes total project costs.
A minimum-cost schedule is determined
by starting with the normal time schedule
and crashing activities along the critical
path in such a way that the costs of
crashing do not exceed the savings in
indirect and penalty costs.

Minimum Cost Schedule

Use these steps to determine the minimum cost

schedule:
1. Determine the projects critical path(s).
2. Find the activity or activities on the critical path(s) with
the lowest cost of crashing per time unit.
3. Reduce the time for this activity until
a. It cannot be further reduced or
b. Until another path becomes critical, or
c. The increase in direct costs exceeds the savings that result from
shortening the project (which lowers indirect costs & penalties).

4. Repeat this procedure until the increase in direct costs is

larger than the savings generated by shortening the
project.

Regular & Crash Times & Cost to Crash

Activity

Regular Time

Crash Time

Total Cost
to Crash

$ A*

$1,000

$ B*

$ 500

$ C*

$ D*

$E

$ 200

$ F*

$ G*

$ H*

12

$ 800

$ I*

$1,200

$J

$K

$ 600

$ L*
TOTAL
* Activities on
critical path

C
$4,300

Cost Per Unit of

Crash Time

END

E
3
K
5
START

A
2

B
4

C
2

D
1

F
2

G
1

L
3
I
8

H
12
J
6
Network for a Software Purchasing Project using Normal Times

IF ALL ACTIVITIES ARE CRASHED

*What is the minimum amount of time to complete the project?
*What is the additional cost involved in achieving this reduction in time?

(26)

END

E
1
(1,5,4)

K
3

L
3

(9,20,11)

START

A
1

B
2

C
2

D
1

F
2

G
1

(0,0,0)

(1,1,0)

(3,3,0)

(5,5,0)

(6,6,0)

(8,8,0)

(23,23,0)

I
5
H
8

(17,18,1)

(9,9,0)

J
6
(17,17,0)

What is the minimum cost to achieve minimum time schedule for project
Activity

Regular Time

Crash Time

Total Cost
to Crash

Cost Per Unit

of Crash Time

$A

$1,000

$1,000

$B

$ 500

$ 250

$C

$D

$E

$ 200

$ 100

$F

$G

$H

12

$ 800

$ 200

$I

$1,200

$ 400

$J

$K

$ 600

$ 300

$L

C
$4,300

START

A
2

B
4

C
2
E
3

END

K
5
G
1

D
1

F
2

L
3
I
8

H
12
J
6

What is the minimum cost to achieve minimum time schedule for project

END

E
3
K
5
A
2

START

B
4

C
2

Activity

Regular Time

Crash Time

Total Cost
to Crash

Cost Per Unit

of Crash Time

$A

$1,000

$1,000

$B

$ 500

$ 250

$C

$E

$ 200

$ 100

$F

$G

$H

12

$ 800

$ 200

$I

$1,200

$ 400

$J

$K

$ 600

$ 300

$L

C
$4,300

D
1

F
2

G
1

L
3
I
8

H
12
J
6

What is the minimum cost to reduce project time to 30 months

END

E
3
K
5
A
2

START

B
4

C
2

Total Cost
to Crash

Cost Per Unit

of Crash Time

Activity

Regular Time

Crash Time

$A

$1,000

$1,000

$B

$ 500

$ 250

$C

$E

$ 200

$ 100

$F

$G

$H

12

$ 800

$ 200

$I

$1,200

$ 400

$J

$K

$ 600

$ 300

$L

C
$4,300

D
1

F
2

G
1

L
3
I
8

H
12
J
6

What is the optimal schedule if I incur a penalty of $280 for each month
above the absolute minimum project time of 26 months?
END

E
3
K
5
A
2

START

B
4

C
2

Activity

Regular Time

Crash Time

Total Cost
to Crash

Cost Per Unit

of Crash Time

$A

$1,000

$1,000

$B

$ 500

$ 250

$C

$E

$ 200

$ 100

$F

$G

$H

12

$ 800

$ 200

$I

$1,200

$ 400

$J

$K

$ 600

$ 300

$L

C
$4,300

D
1

F
2

G
1

L
3
I
8

H
12
J
6

Calculating total Cost

Adding Direct, Penalty & Overhead Costs

The overhead (indirect) costs are $200 per day

There is a penalty of $100/day for completing project in more than 12 days
2007 Pearson Education

Network
Diagram

Total Cost Problem

2007 Pearson Education

Assessing Risks
Risk is a measure of the probability and
consequence of not reaching a defined project
goal.
A major responsibility of the project manager
at the start of a project is to develop a riskmanagement plan.
A Risk-Management Plan identifies the key
risks to a projects success and prescribes ways
to circumvent them.

Probabilistic
Time Estimates

Probability

Beta Distribution

a
Optimistic

Mean

Pessimistic

Time

Probabilistic
Time Estimates
Normal
Distribution

Probability

Area under curve

between a and b is
99.74%

3s

Time

3s

m
Mean

Probabilistic Time Estimates

Calculating Means and Variances for a Beta Distribution

Where:
Mean
a + 4m + b

te =

a is the Optimistic estimate

b is the pessimistic estimate

6
m is the most likely estimate

Variance

s2 =

ba

( )
6

St. Johns Hospital

Probabilistic Time Estimates

Time Estimates (wk)

Activity

Optimistic
(a)

Likely
(m)

Pessimistic
(b)

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K

11
7
5
8
14
6
25
35
10
1
5

12
8
10
9
25
9
36
40
13
2
6

13
15
15
16
30
18
41
45
28
15
7

Start

Finish

St. Johns Hospital

Probabilistic Time Estimates
Calculating Means and Variances
I

Activity B
Most
Optimistic
Likely
(a)
(m)
7
8

Pessimistic
(b)
15

Start

7 + 4(8) + 15

te =

= 9 weeks
E

s2 =

15 - 7

( )
6

= 1.78

Finish

St. Johns Hospital

Probabilistic Time Estimates

Time Estimates (wk)

Activity Statistics

Activity

Optimistic
(a)

Likely
(m)

Pessimistic
(b)

Expected
Time (te )

Variance
(s2 )

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K

11
7
5
8
14
6
25
35
10
1
5

12
8
10
9
25
9
36
40
13
2
6

13
15
15
16
30
18
41
45
28
15
7

12
9
10
10
24
10
35
40
15
4
6

0.11
1.78
2.78
1.78
7.11
4.00
7.11
2.78
9.00
5.44
0.11

Earliest start time

12
27
48 15 63

Latest start time

A

12

12 F 22

2 12 14

53 10 63

12
22
14 10 24

Start

B 9

0 9 9

9
19
9 10 19

9 E 33
35 24 59
2007 Pearson Education

Earliest finish time

Latest finish time
63 K 69
63 6 69

22 G 57
24
59

Finish

35

19
59
19 40 59

59

J 63

59 4 63

St. Johns Hospital

Analyzing Probabilities
What is the Probability of finishing the project in 72 weeks?
Given that: Critical Path = B - D - H - J - K
T = 72 Weeks

s2

TE = 69 Weeks

= (variances of activities)

z=

T TE
s2

s2 = 1.78 + 1.78 + 2.78 + 5.44 + 0.11 = 11.89

72 69
z=
11.89

= .87

From Normal Distribution appendix

Pz = .8078 .81

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION TABLE

.00

.01

.02

.03

.04

.05

.06

.07

.08

.09

.0

.5000

.5040

.5080

.5120

.5160

.5199

.5239

.5279

.5319

.5359

.1

.5398

.5438

.5478

.5517

.5557

.5596

.5636

.5675

.5714

.5753

.2

.5793

.5832

.5871

.5910

.5948

.5987

.6026

.6064

.6103

.6141

.3

.6179

.6217

.6255

.6293

.6331

.6368

.6406

.6443

.6480

.6517

.4

.6554

.6591

.6628

.6664

.6700

.6736

.6772

.6808

.6844

.6879

.5

.6915

.6950

.6985

.7019

.7054

.7088

.7123

.7157

.7190

.7224

.6

.7257

.7291

.7324

.7357

.7389

.7422

.7454

.7486

.7517

.7549

.7

.7580

.7611

.7642

.7673

.7704

.7734

.7764

.7794

.7823

.7852

.8

.7881

.7910

.7939

.7967

.7995

.8023

.8051

.8078

.8106

.8133

.9

.8159

.8186

.8212

.8238

.8264

.8289

.8315

.8340

.8365

.8389

1.0

.8413

.8438

.8461

.8485

.8508

.8531

.8554

.8577

.8599

.8621

1.1

.8643

.8665

.8686

.8708

.8729

.8749

.8770

.8790

.8810

.8830

1.2

.8849

.8869

.8888

.8907

.8925

.8944

.8962

.8980

.8997

.9015

1.3

.9032

.9049

.9066

.9082

.9099

.9115

.9131

.9147

.9162

.9177

1.4

.9192

.9207

.9222

.9236

.9251

.9265

.9279

.9292

.9306

.9319

1.5

.9332

.9345

.9357

.9370

.9382

.9394

.9406

.9418

.9429

.9441

1.6

.9452

.9463

.9474

.9484

.9495

.9505

.9515

.9525

.9535

.9545

1.7

.9554

.9564

.9573

.9582

.9591

.9599

.9608

.9616

.9625

.9633

1.8

.9641

.9649

.9656

.9664

.9671

.9678

.9686

.9693

.9699

.9706

1.9

.9713

.9719

.9726

.9732

.9738

.9744

.9750

.9756

.9761

.9767

2.0

.9772

.9778

.9783

.9788

.9793

.9798

.9803

.9808

.9812

.9817

2.1

.9821

.9826

.9830

.9834

.9838

.9842

.9846

.9850

.9854

.9857

2.2

.9861

.9864

.9868

.9871

.9875

.9878

.9881

.9884

.9887

.9890

2.3

.9893

.9896

.9898

.9901

.9904

.9906

.9909

.9911

.9913

.9916

2.4

.9918

.9920

.9922

.9925

.9927

.9929

.9931

.9932

.9934

.9936

2.5

.9938

.9940

.9941

.9943

.9945

.9946

.9948

.9949

.9951

.9952

2.6

.9953

.9955

.9956

.9957

.9959

.9960

.9961

.9962

.9963

.9964

2.7

.9965

.9966

.9967

.9968

.9969

.9970

.9971

.9972

.9973

.9974

2.8

.9974

.9975

.9976

.9977

.9977

.9978

.9979

.9979

.9980

.9981

2.9

.9981

.9982

.9982

.9983

.9984

.9984

.9985

.9985

.9986

.9986

3.0

.9987

.9987

.9987

.9988

.9988

.9989

.9989

.9989

.9990

.9990

3.1

.9990

.9991

.9991

.9991

.9992

.9992

.9992

.9992

.9993

.9993

3.2

.9993

.9993

.9994

.9994

.9994

.9994

.9994

.9995

.9995

.9995

3.3

.9995

.9995

.9995

.9996

.9996

.9996

.9996

.9996

.9996

.9997

3.4

.9997

.9997

.9997

.9997

.9997

.9997

.9997

.9997

.9997

.9998

St. Johns Hospital

Probability of Completing Project On Time

Normal distribution:
Mean = 69 weeks;
s = 3.45 weeks

Length of
critical path

Probability of
meeting the
schedule is
0.8078

Probability of
exceeding 72
weeks is 0.1922

69 72

Project duration (weeks)

Software Purchasing Project

Probabilistic Time Estimates

Time Estimates (Months)

Activity
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L

Optimistic
(a)
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
8
7
5
4
2

Likely
(m)

Pessimistic
(b)

2
4
2
1
3
2
1
12
8
6
5
3

3
6
2
1
5
3
1
14
10
7
6
6

Activity Statistics
Expected
Time (te )

Variance
(s2 )

END

E
3

START

4.17

3.33

I
8.17

H
11.67

J
6

Network for a Software Purchasing Project using the Mean Times

Critical Path: ABCDFGHIL
Expected Time to complete the project:
2+4.17+2+1+2+1+11.67+8.17+3.33 = 35.33

What is the probability in finishing

in less than 37 months?

What is the probability in finishing

in less than 31 months?