Roots of Equations Contd

Roots of Equations: Open
methods
Newton-Raphson
Secant Method
Muller methods

Newton-Raphson Method

Newton-Raphson Method
) (x f
) f(x
- = x x
i
i
i i
'
+1

f(x)
f(x
i
)
f(x
i-1
)
x
i+2
x
i+1
x
i

X
u

( ) | |
i i
x f x
,

Figure 1 Geometrical illustration of the Newton-Raphson method.
http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu 3
Derivation

f(x)
f(x
i
)
x
i+1
x
i

X
B
C A o
) (
) (
1
i
i
i i
x f
x f
x x
'
=
+
1
) (
) ( '
+
=
i i
i
i
x x
x f
x f
AC
AB
= ) o tan(
Figure 2 Derivation of the Newton-Raphson method.
4
http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu
Algorithm for Newton-Raphson
Method
5
Step 1
) (x f
' Evaluate
symbolically.
Step 2
( )
( )
i
i
i i
x f
x f
- = x x
'
+1
Use an initial guess of the root, , to estimate the new value of the root, , as
i
x
1 + i
x
Step 3
0 10
1
1

x
- x x
=
i
i i
a
e
+
+
Find the absolute relative approximate error as
a
e
Step 4
Compare the absolute relative approximate error with
the pre-specified relative error tolerance .

Also, check if the number of iterations has exceeded the
maximum number of iterations allowed. If so, one needs
to terminate the algorithm and notify the user.
s
e

Is ?

Yes
No
Go to Step 2 using new
estimate of the root.
Stop the algorithm
s a
>e e
Example 1
A polynomial is expressed as
( )
4 2 3
10 993 3 165 0
-
. + x . - x x f =
Use the Newtons method of finding roots of equations to find
a) The root x. Conduct three iterations to estimate the root of the above
equation.
b) The absolute relative approximate error at the end of each iteration, and
c) The number of significant digits at least correct at the end of each iteration.
Example 1 Cont.
( )
4 2 3
10 993 3 165 0
-
. + x . - x x f =
11 http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu
To aid in the understanding of how this
method works to find the root of an
equation, the graph of f(x) is shown to the
right, where
Solution
Figure 4 Graph of the function f(x)
Example 1 Cont.
( )
( ) x - x x f
. + x . - x x f
-
33 . 0 3 '
10 993 3 165 0
2
4 2 3
=
=
Let us assume the initial guess of the root of is .
( ) 0 = x f
m 05 . 0
0
= x
Solve for
( ) x f '
Example 1 Cont.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
06242 . 0
01242 . 0 0.05
10 9
10 118 . 1
0.05
05 . 0 33 . 0 05 . 0 3
10 .993 3 05 . 0 165 . 0 05 . 0
05 . 0
'
3
4
2
4
2 3
0
0
0 1
=
=

=
+
=
=
x f
x f
x x
Iteration 1
The estimate of the root is
Example 1 Cont.
Figure 5 Estimate of the root for the first iteration.
Example 1 Cont.
% 90 . 19
100
06242 . 0
05 . 0 06242 . 0
100
1
0 1
=
= e
x
x x
a
The absolute relative approximate error at the end of Iteration 1 is
a
e
The number of significant digits at least correct is 0, as you need an absolute
relative approximate error of 5% or less for at least one significant digits to be
correct in your result.
Example 1 Cont.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
06238 . 0
10 4646 . 4 06242 . 0
10 90973 . 8
10 97781 . 3
06242 . 0
06242 . 0 33 . 0 06242 . 0 3
10 .993 3 06242 . 0 165 . 0 06242 . 0
06242 . 0
'
5
3
7
2
4
2 3
1
1
1 2
=
=

=
+
=
=
x f
x f
x x
Iteration 2
Example 1 Cont.
Figure 6 Estimate of the root for the Iteration 2.
Example 1 Cont.
% 0716 . 0
100
06238 . 0
06242 . 0 06238 . 0
100
2
1 2
=
= e
x
x x
a
a
e
The maximum value of m for which is 2.844. Hence,
the number of significant digits at least correct in the answer is 2.
m
a

s e
2
10 5 . 0
Example 1 Cont.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
06238 . 0
10 9822 . 4 06238 . 0
10 91171 . 8
10 44 . 4
06238 . 0
06238 . 0 33 . 0 06238 . 0 3
10 .993 3 06238 . 0 165 . 0 06238 . 0
06238 . 0
'
9
3
11
2
4
2 3
2
2
2 3
=
=

=
+
=
=
x f
x f
x x
Iteration 3
Example 1 Cont.
Figure 7 Estimate of the root for the Iteration 3.
Example 1 Cont.
% 0
100
06238 . 0
06238 . 0 06238 . 0
100
2
1 2
=
= e
x
x x
a
a
e
The number of significant digits at least correct is 4, as only 4 significant
digits are carried through all the calculations.
Advantages and Drawbacks of
Newton Raphson Method

Advantages
Converges fast (quadratic convergence), if it
converges.
Requires only one guess
Drawbacks
1. Divergence at inflection points
Selection of the initial guess or an iteration value of the root that is close
to the inflection point of the function may start diverging away from
the root in the Newton-Raphson method.

For example, to find the root of the equation .

The Newton-Raphson method reduces to .

Table 1 shows the iterated values of the root of the equation.

The root starts to diverge at Iteration 6 because the previous estimate of
0.92589 is close to the inflection point of .

Eventually after 12 more iterations the root converges to the exact value of
( ) x f
( ) ( ) 0 512 . 0 1
3
= + = x x f
( )
( )
2
3
3
1
1 3
512 . 0 1
+
=
+
i
i
i i
x
x
x x
1 = x
. 2 . 0 = x
Drawbacks Inflection Points
Iteration
Number
x
i

0 5.0000
1 3.6560
2 2.7465
3 2.1084
4 1.6000
5 0.92589
6 30.119
7 19.746
18 0.2000
( ) ( ) 0 512 . 0 1
3
= + = x x f
Figure 8 Divergence at inflection point for
Table 1 Divergence near inflection point.
2. Division by zero
For the equation

the Newton-Raphson method
reduces to

For , the
denominator will equal zero.

Drawbacks Division by Zero
( ) 0 10 4 . 2 03 . 0
6 2 3
= + =

x x x f
i i
i i
i i
x x
x x
x x
06 . 0 3
10 4 . 2 03 . 0
2
6 2 3
1
+
=

+
02 . 0 or 0
0 0
= = x x
Figure 9 Pitfall of division by zero
or near a zero number
Results obtained from the Newton-Raphson method may oscillate
about the local maximum or minimum without converging on a root
but converging on the local maximum or minimum.

Eventually, it may lead to division by a number close to zero and may
diverge.

For example for the equation has no real roots.

Drawbacks Oscillations near local
maximum and minimum
( ) 0 2
2
= + = x x f
3. Oscillations near local maximum and minimum
Drawbacks Oscillations near local
maximum and minimum
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
f(x)
3
4
2
1
-1.75 -0.3040 0.5 3.142
Figure 10 Oscillations around local
minima for . ( ) 2
2
+ = x x f
Iteration
Number
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1.0000
0.5
1.75
0.30357
3.1423
1.2529
0.17166
5.7395
2.6955
0.97678
3.00
2.25
5.063
2.092
11.874
3.570
2.029
34.942
9.266
2.954

300.00
128.571
476.47
109.66
150.80
829.88
102.99
112.93
175.96
Table 3 Oscillations near local maxima and
mimima in Newton-Raphson method.
i
x ( )
i
x f %
a
e
4. Root Jumping
In some cases where the function is oscillating and has a number of roots,
one may choose an initial guess close to a root. However, the guesses may jump
and converge to some other root.

For example

Choose

It will converge to

instead of
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x
f(x)
-0.06307 0.5499 4.461 7.539822
Drawbacks Root Jumping
( ) 0 sin = = x x f
( ) x f
539822 . 7 4 . 2
0
= = t x
0 = x
2831853 . 6 2 = = t x Figure 11 Root jumping from intended
location of root for
. ( ) 0 sin = = x x f
Secant Method

31
Secant Method Derivation
) (x f
) f(x
- = x x
i
i
i i
'
+1

f(x)
f(x
i
)
f(x
i-1
)
x
i+2
x
i+1
x
i

X
u

( ) | |
i i
x f x
,

1
1
) ( ) (
) (
= '
i i
i i
i
x x
x f x f
x f
) ( ) (
) )( (
1
1
1

=
i i
i i i
i i
x f x f
x x x f
x x
Newtons Method
Approximate the derivative
Substituting Equation (2) into
Equation (1) gives the Secant
method
(1)
(2)
Figure 1 Geometrical illustration of the
Newton-Raphson method.
32
Secant Method Derivation
) ( ) (
) )( (
1
1
1

=
i i
i i i
i i
x f x f
x x x f
x x
The Geometric Similar Triangles

f(x)
f(x
i
)
f(x
i-1
)
x
i+1
x
i-1
x
i

X
B
C
E D A
1 1
1
1
) ( ) (
+
+

=
i i
i
i i
i
x x
x f
x x
x f
DE
DC
AE
AB
=
Figure 2 Geometrical representation of
the Secant method.
The secant method can also be derived from geometry:
can be written as
On rearranging, the secant method
is given as

33
Algorithm for Secant Method

34
Step 1
0 10
1
1

x
- x x
=
i
i i
a
e
+
+
Calculate the next estimate of the root from two initial guesses
Find the absolute relative approximate error
) ( ) (
) )( (
1
1
1

=
i i
i i i
i i
x f x f
x x x f
x x

35
Step 2
Find if the absolute relative approximate error is greater than
the prespecified relative error tolerance.

If so, go back to step 1, else stop the algorithm.

Also check if the number of iterations has exceeded the
maximum number of iterations.

36
Example 1 Cont.
Use the Secant method of finding roots of equations to find the x
Conduct three iterations to estimate the root of the above equation.
Find the absolute relative approximate error and the number of significant
digits at least correct at the end of each iteration.
A polynomial is given as
( )
4 2 3
10 993 3 165 0
-
. + x . - x x f =

37
Example 1 Cont.
( )
4 2 3
10 993 3 165 0
-
. + x . - x x f =
To aid in the understanding of how this
method works to find the root of an
equation, the graph of f(x) is shown to the
right,

where
Solution
Figure 4 Graph of the function f(x).

38
Example 1 Cont.
Let us assume the initial guesses of the root of
as and
( ) 0 = x f
02 . 0
1
=
x
Iteration 1
( )( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
06461 . 0
10 993 . 3 02 . 0 165 . 0 02 . 0 10 993 . 3 05 . 0 165 . 0 05 . 0
02 . 0 05 . 0 10 993 . 3 05 . 0 165 . 0 05 . 0
05 . 0
4
2
3 4
2
3
4
2
3
1 0
1 0 0
0 1
=
+ +
+
=
x f x f
x x x f
x x
. 05 . 0
0
= x

39
Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error at the end of Iteration
1 is
% 62 . 22
100
06461 . 0
05 . 0 06461 . 0
100
1
0 1
=
= e
x
x x
a
a
e
The number of significant digits at least correct is 0, as you need
an absolute relative approximate error of 5% or less for one
significant digits to be correct in your result.

40
Example 1 Cont.
Figure 5 Graph of results of Iteration 1.

41
Example 1 Cont.
Iteration 2
( )( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
06241 . 0
10 993 . 3 05 . 0 165 . 0 05 . 0 10 993 . 3 06461 . 0 165 . 0 06461 . 0
05 . 0 06461 . 0 10 993 . 3 06461 . 0 165 . 0 06461 . 0
06461 . 0
4
2
3 4
2
3
4
2
3
0 1
0 1 1
1 2
=
+ +
+
=
x f x f
x x x f
x x

42
Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error at the end of
Iteration 2 is
% 525 . 3
100
06241 . 0
06461 . 0 06241 . 0
100
2
1 2
=
= e
x
x x
a
a
e
an absolute relative approximate error of 5% or less.

43
Example 1 Cont.

44
Example 1 Cont.
Iteration 3
( )( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
06238 . 0
10 993 . 3 06461 . 0 165 . 0 05 . 0 10 993 . 3 06241 . 0 165 . 0 06241 . 0
06461 . 0 06241 . 0 10 993 . 3 06241 . 0 165 . 0 06241 . 0
06241 . 0
4
2
3 4
2
3
4
2
3
1 2
1 2 2
2 3
=
+ +
+
=
x f x f
x x x f
x x

45
Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error at the end of
Iteration 3 is
% 0595 . 0
100
06238 . 0
06241 . 0 06238 . 0
100
3
2 3
=
= e
x
x x
a
a
e
an absolute relative approximate error of 0.5% or less.

46
Iteration #3

47
Advantages
Converges fast, if it converges
Requires two guesses that do not need to bracket
the root

48
Drawbacks
Division by zero
10 5 0 5 10
2
1
0
1
2
f(x)
prev. guess
new guess
2
2
0
f x ( )
f x ( )
f x ( )
10 10 x x
guess1
, x
guess2
,
( ) ( ) 0 = = x Sin x f

49
Drawbacks (continued)
Root Jumping
10 5 0 5 10
2
1
0
1
2
f(x)
x'1, (first guess)
x0, (previous guess)
Secant line
x1, (new guess)
2
2
0
f x ( )
f x ( )
f x ( )
secant x ( )
f x ( )
10 10 x x
0
, x
1'
, x , x
1
,
( ) 0 = = Sinx x f
50
Mller Method
Mllers method obtains a root estimate by
projecting a parabola to the x axis through three
function values.

51
Mller Method
c x x b x x a x f + + = ) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
2 2
The method consists of deriving the
coefficients of parabola that goes through the
three points:

1. Write the equation in a convenient form:
52
2. The parabola should intersect the three points [x
o
, f(x
o
)],
[x
1
, f(x
1
)], [x
2
, f(x
2
)]. The coefficients of the polynomial
can be estimated by substituting three points to give

3. Three equations can be solved for three unknowns, a, b,
c. Since two of the terms in the 3
rd
equation are zero, it
can be immediately solved for c=f(x
2
).

c x x b x x a x f
c x x b x x a x f
c x x b x x a x f
o o o
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 1
2
2 1 1
2
2
2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
2
2 1 2 1
2
2
2 2
x x b x x a x f x f
x x b x x a x f x f
o o o
+ =
+ =
53
) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
x - x h x - x h
If
2 1 1
1
1
1 1
2
1 1
1 1
2
1 1
1 2
1 2
1
1
1
1 2 1 o 1 o
x f c ah b
h h
a
h a h b h
h h a h h b h h
x x
x f x f
x x
x f x f
o
o
o o o o
o
o
o
= + =
+
=
=
+ = + +

=
= =
o
o o
o
o o
o o
Solved for a
and b
54
Roots can be found by applying an alternative form of
quadratic formula:

The error can be calculated as

term yields two roots, the sign is chosen to agree with b. This
will result in a largest denominator, and will give root estimate
that is closest to x
2
.

ac b b
c
x x
4
2
2
2 3

+ =
% 100
3
2 3
x
x x
a

= c
55
Once x
3
is determined, the process is
repeated using the following guidelines:
1. If only real roots are being located, choose the
two original points that are nearest the new root
estimate, x
3
.
2. If both real and complex roots are estimated,
employ a sequential approach just like in secant
method, x
1
, x
2
, and x
3
to replace x
o
, x
1
, and x
2
.
Example

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