Links and

Joints
Links and Joints
Joints:
Links
End Effector
Robot Basis
2 DOFs

Denavit
Hartenberg
details and
examples
Chapter 2
Robot Kinematics: Position Analysis
u : A rotation about the z-axis.
d : The distance on the z-axis.
a : The length of each common normal (Joint offset).
o : The angle between two successive z-axes (Joint twist)

Only u and d are joint variables.
-DENAVIT-HARTENBERG REPRESENTATION
Symbol Terminologies :

Z-axis aligned with joint
Joints U
Links S

X-axis aligned with outgoing
limb

Y-axis is orthogonal

Joints are numbered to represent
hierarchy
U
i-1
is parent of U
i

Parameter a
i-1
is outgoing
limb length of joint U
i-1
Joint angle, u
i
, is rotation of x
i-1
about z
i-
1
relative to x
i

Link twist, o
i-1
, is the rotation of i
th
z-axis about
x
i-1
-axis relative to z-axis of i-1
th
frame

Link offset, d
i-1
, specifies the distance along the z
i-1
-axis (rotated
by o
i-1
) of the i
th
frame from the
i-1
th
x-axis to the i
th
x-axis
Start point:
Assign joint number n to the first shown joint.
Assign a local reference frame for each and every
joint before or
after these joints.
Y-axis is not used in D-H representation.
DENAVIT-HARTENBERG
REPRESENTATION PROCEDURES
1. All joints are represented by a z-axis.
(right-hand rule for rotational joint, linear movement for prismatic
joint)

2. The common normal is one line mutually perpendicular to any two
skew lines.

3. Parallel z-axes joints make a infinite number of common normal.

4. Intersecting z-axes of two successive joints make no common
normal between them(Length is 0.).
DENAVIT-HARTENBERG REPRESENTATION
Procedures for assigning a local reference frame to each joint:
Chapter 2
Robot Kinematics: Position Analysis
(I) Rotate about the z
n
-axis an able of u
n+1
. (Coplanar)
(II) Translate along z
n
-axis a distance of d
n+1
to make x
n
and x
n+1

colinear.
(III) Translate along the x
n
-axis a distance of a
n+1
to bring the origins
of x
n+1
together.
(IV) Rotate z
n
-axis about x
n+1
axis an angle of o
n+1
to align z
n
-axis
with z
n+1
-axis.
-DENAVIT-HARTENBERG REPRESENTATION
The necessary motions to transform from
one reference frame to the next.
Denavit -
Hartenberg
Parameters
a general explanation
Denavit-Hartenberg Notation
Z
(i - 1)

X
(i -1)

Y
(i -1)

u
( i - 1)

a
(i - 1 )

Z
i

Y
i

X
i

a
i

d
i

u
i

IDEA: Each joint is assigned a coordinate frame.
Using the Denavit-Hartenberg notation, you need 4 parameters to describe how a
frame (i) relates to a previous frame ( i -1 ).
THE PARAMETERS/VARIABLES: , a , d,
u : A rotation about the z-axis.
d : The distance on the z-axis.
a : The length of each common normal (Joint offset).
o : The angle between two successive z-axes (Joint twist)
Only u and d are joint variables
The a
(i-1)
Parameter
Z
(i - 1)

X
(i -1)

Y
(i -1)

O
( i - 1)

a
(i - 1 )

Z
i

Y
i

X
i

a
i

d
i

O
i

You can
align the
two axis
just using
the 4
parameters
1) a
(i-1)

Technical Definition: a
(i-1)
is the length of the perpendicular
between the joint axes.
The joint axes are the axes around which revolution takes place
which are the Z
(i-1)
and

Z
(i)
axes.
These two axes can be viewed as lines in space.
The common perpendicular is the shortest line between the two
axis-lines and is perpendicular to both axis-lines.

u : A rotation about the z-axis.
d : The distance on the z-axis.
a : The length of each common normal (Joint offset).
o : The angle between two successive z-axes (Joint twist)
a
(i-1) cont...

Visual Approach - A way to visualize the link parameter a
(i-1)
is to
imagine an expanding cylinder whose axis is the Z
(i-1)
axis - when
the cylinder just touches the joint axis i the radius of the cylinder is
equal to a
(i-1).
(Manipulator Kinematics)



Z
(i - 1)

X
(i -1)

Y
(i -1)

O
( i - 1)

a
(i - 1 )

Z
i

Y
i

X
i

a
i

d
i

O
i

The alpha a
(i-1)
Parameter
Its Usually on the Diagram Approach -
If the diagram already specifies the various coordinate frames, then the
common perpendicular is usually the X
(i-1)
axis.
So a
(i-1)
is just the displacement along the X
(i-1)
to move from the (i-1) frame to
the i frame.

If the link is prismatic, then a
(i-1)
is a variable, not a parameter.


Z
(i - 1)

X
(i -1)

Y
(i -1)

O
( i - 1)

a
(i - 1 )

Z
i

Y
i

X
i

a
i

d
i

O
i

u : A rotation about the z-axis.
d : The distance on the z-axis.
a : The length of each common normal (Joint offset).
o : The angle between two successive z-axes (Joint twist)
2)O
(i-1)
Technical Definition:
Amount of rotation around the common perpendicular so that the joint axes are
parallel.

i.e. How much you have to rotate around the X
(i-1)
axis so that the Z
(i-1)
is pointing
in the same direction as the Z
i
axis.

Positive rotation follows the right hand rule.

Z
(i - 1)

X
(i -1)

Y
(i -1)

O
( i - 1)

a
(i - 1 )

Z
i

Y
i

X
i

a
i

d
i

O
i

The O
(i-1)
Parameter
3) d
(i-1)

Technical Definition:
The displacement along the Z
i
axis needed to align the a
(i-1)
common perpendicular
to the a
i
common perpendicular.

In other words, displacement along the Z
i
to align the X
(i-1)
and X
i
axes.

4) O
i

Amount of rotation around the Z
i
axis needed to align the

X
(i-1)
axis with the X
i

axis.
Z
(i - 1)

X
(i -1)

Y
(i -1)

O
( i - 1)

a
(i - 1 )

Z
i

Y
i

X
i

a
i

d
i

O
i

The d
(i-1)
Parameter
The O
i
Parameter
The same table as last slide
The Denavit-Hartenberg Matrix
(
(
(
(

1 0 0 0
cos cos sin cos sin sin
sin sin cos cos cos sin
0 sin cos
i 1) (i 1) (i 1) (i i 1) (i i
i 1) (i 1) (i 1) (i i 1) (i i
1) (i i i
d
d
a
Just like the Homogeneous Matrix, the Denavit-Hartenberg Matrix is a
transformation matrix from one coordinate frame to the next.
Using a series of D-H Matrix multiplications and the D-H Parameter table, the
final result is a transformation matrix from some frame to your initial frame.

Z
(i -
1)

X
(i -
1)

Y
(i -
1)

O
( i - 1)

a
(i -
1 )

Z

i

Y
i

X

i

a
i

d

i

O
i

Put the transformation here
u : A rotation about the z-axis.
d : The distance on the z-axis.
a : The length of each common normal (Joint offset).
o : The angle between two successive z-axes (Joint twist)
Example:
Calculating the
final DH matrix
with the DH
Parameter Table
Example with three
Revolute Joints
i
o
(i-1)
a
(i-1)
d
i

u
i
0 0 0

0
u
0

1 0 a
0
0
u
1

2 -90 a
1
d
2

u
2



Z
0

X
0

Y
0

Z
1

X
2

Y
1

X
1

Y
2

d
2

a
0
a
1

Denavit-Hartenberg Link
Parameter Table
Notice that the table has two uses:
1) To describe the robot with its
variables and parameters.
2) To describe some state of the
robot by having a numerical values
for the variables.
The DH
Parameter
Table
We calculate with
respect to previous O
Example with three
Revolute Joints
i
o
(i-1)
a
(i-1)
d
i

u
i
0 0 0

0
u
0

1 0 a
0
0
u
1

2 -90 a
1
d
2

u
2



Z
0

X
0

Y
0

Z
1

X
2

Y
1

X
1

Y
2

d
2

a
0
a
1

Denavit-Hartenberg Link
Parameter Table
Notice that the table has two uses:
1) To describe the robot with its
variables and parameters.
2) To describe some state of the
robot by having a numerical values
for the variables.
The same table as last slide
Z
0

X
0

Y
0

Z
1

X
2

Y
1

X
1

Y
2

d
2

a
0
a
1

i
o
(i-1)
a
(i-1)
d
i

u
i
0 0 0

0
u
0

1 0 a
0
0
u
1

2 -90 a
1
d
2

u
2



(
(
(
(
(

=
1
V
V
V
T V
2
2
2
0 0 0
Z
Y
X
Z Y X
T) T)( T)( ( T
1
2
0
1 0
=
Note: T is the D-H matrix with (i-1) = 0 and i = 1.
These matrices T are
calculated in next slide
The same table as last slide
World coordinates
tool coordinates
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 cos sin
0 0 sin cos
T
0 0
0 0
0
i
o
(i-1)
a
(i-1)
d
i

u
i
0 0 0

0
u
0

1 0 a
0
0
u
1

2 -90 a
1
d
2

u
2



This is just a rotation around the Z
0
axis
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 cos sin
a 0 sin cos
T
1 1
0 1 1
0
1
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0 0
0 0 cos sin
d 1 0 0
a 0 sin cos
T
2 2
2
1 2 2
1
2
This is a translation by a
0
followed by a
rotation around the Z
1
axis
This is a translation by a
1
and then d
2

followed by a rotation around the X
2
and


Z
2
axis
T) T)( T)( ( T
1
2
0
1 0
=
The same table as last slide
(
(
(
(
(

=
1
V
V
V
T V
2
2
2
0 0 0
Z
Y
X
Z Y X
World coordinates
tool coordinates
T) T)( T)( ( T
1
2
0
1 0
=
Conclusions
Forward
Kinematics
The Situation:
You have a robotic arm that
starts out aligned with the x
o
-axis.
You tell the first link to move by
1

and the second link to move by
2
.

The Quest:
What is the position of the
end of the robotic arm?
Solution:
1. Geometric Approach
This might be the easiest solution for the simple situation. However,
notice that the angles are measured relative to the direction of the previous
link. (The first link is the exception. The angle is measured relative to its
initial position.) For robots with more links and whose arm extends into 3
dimensions the geometry gets much more tedious.

2. Algebraic Approach
Involves coordinate transformations.
Forward Kinematics Problem
X
2

X
3

Y
2

Y
3

O
1

O
2

O
3

l1
l2 l3
Example Problem with H matrices:
1. You have a three link arm that starts out aligned in the x-axis.
2. Each link has lengths l
1
, l
2
, l
3
, respectively.
3. You tell the first one to move by Y
1
, and so on as the diagram suggests.
4. Find the Homogeneous matrix to get the position of the yellow dot in the
X
0
Y
0
frame.

H = R
z
(O
1
) * T
x1
(l
1
) * R
z
(O
2
) * T
x2
(l
2
) * R
z
(O
3
)

1. Rotating by O
1
will put you in the X
1
Y
1
frame.
2. Translate in the along the X
1
axis by l
1
.
3. Rotating by O
2
will put you in the X
2
Y
2
frame.
4. and so on until you are in the X
3
Y
3
frame.

The position of the yellow dot relative to the X
3
Y
3
frame is
(l
3
, 0).

Multiplying H by that position vector will give you the
coordinates of the yellow point relative the X
0
Y
0
frame.
X
0

Y
0

Slight variation on the last solution:
Make the yellow dot the origin of a new coordinate X
4
Y
4
frame
X
2

X
3

Y
2

Y
3

Y
1

Y
2

Y
3

1
2 3
X
0

Y
0

X
4

Y
4

H = R
z
(Y
1
) * T
x1
(l
1
) * R
z
(Y
2
) * T
x2
(l
2
) * R
z
(Y
3
) * T
x3
(l
3
)

This takes you from the X
0
Y
0
frame to the X
4
Y
4
frame.

The position of the yellow dot relative to the X
4
Y
4
frame
is (0,0).
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

1
0
0
0
H
1
Z
Y
X
added
THE INVERSE
KINEMATIC
SOLUTION OF A
ROBOT
- Determine the value of each joint to place the arm at a
desired position and orientation.
6 5 4 3 2 1 A A A A A A TH
R
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+ + + +
+ +

+

+ + +
+

=
1 0 0 0
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2 2 3 23 4 234 5 234 6 234 6 5 234 6 234 6 5 234
2 2 3 23 4 234 1 5 1 5 234 1
6 5 1
6 234 6 5 234 1
6 5 1
6 234 6 5 234 1
2 2 3 23 4 234 1 5 1 5 234 1
6 5 1
6 234 6 5 234 1
6 5 1
6 234 6 5 234 1
a S a S a S S S C C C C S S C C C S
a C a C a C S C C S C S
C S C
C S C C C S
C S C
S S C C C S
a C a C a C C C S S C C
C S S
C S C C C C
C S S
S S C C C C
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0 0
z z z z
y y y y
x x x x
p a o n
p a o n
p a o n
THE INVERSE KINEMATIC SOLUTION
OF ROBOT
Multiply both sides by A1
-1
RHS
6 5 4 3 2
1
1
1
1
] [
1 0 0 0
A A A A A RHS A
p a o n
p a o n
p a o n
A
z z z z
y y y y
x x x x
= =
(
(
(
(

6 5 4 3 2
1 1
1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0
A A A A A
p a o n
p a o n
p a o n
C S
S C
z z z z
y y y y
x x x x
=
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

THE INVERSE KINEMATIC SOLUTION OF ROBOT

A1
-1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

x
y
p
p
1
1 tan u
) ( ) )( (
) ( ) )( (
tan
4 234 3 3 4 234 1 1 2 3 3
4 234 1 1 3 3 4 234 2 3 3
1
2
a S P a S a C S p C p a a C
a C S p C p a S a S p a a C
z y x
y x z
+ + +
+ +
=

u
|
.
|

\
|
=

3
3
1
3 tan
C
S
u
3 2 234 4 u u u u =
y x
z y x
a C a S
a S a S a C C
1 1
234 1 1 234
1
5
) (
tan

+ +
=

u
z y x
z y x
o C o S o C S
n S n S n C S
234 1 1 234
234 1 1 234
1
6
) (
) (
tan
+ +
+ +
=

u
THE INVERSE KINEMATIC SOLUTION OF ROBOT
We calculate all angles from
px, py, a1, a2, ni, oi, etc
- A robot has a predictable path on a straight line,
- Or an unpredictable path on a straight line.
A predictable path is necessary to recalculate joint variables.
(Between 50 to 200 times a second)
To make the robot follow a straight line, it is necessary to break
the line into many small sections.
All unnecessary computations should be eliminated.
Fig. 2.30 Small sections of movement for straight-
line motions
INVERSE KINEMATIC PROGRAM: a
predictable path on a straight line
PROBLEMS
with DH
Degeneracy : The robot looses a degree of freedom
and thus cannot perform as desired.
When the robots joints reach their physical limits,
and as a result, cannot move any further.
In the middle point of its workspace if the z-axes
of two similar joints becomes collinear.
Fig. 2.31 An example of a robot in a
degenerate position.
Dexterity : The volume of points where one can
position the robot as desired, but not
orientate it.
DEGENERACY AND DEXTERITY
Defect of D-H presentation : D-H cannot represent any motion about
the y-axis, because all motions are about the x- and z-axis.
Fig. 2.31 The frames of the
Stanford Arm.
# u d a o
1
u
1
0 0 -90
2
u
2

d
1
0 90
3
0
d
1
0 0
4
u
4
0 0 -90
5
u
5
0 0 90
6
u
6
0 0 0
TABLE 2.3 THE PARAMETERS TABLE FOR THE
STANFORD ARM
THE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM WITH D-H
REPRESENTATION