By

Teguh Firmansyah, S.T, M.T

Electrical Engineering
Outline
Effect of Noise on Amplitude-Modulation Systems
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
Comparison of Analog-Modulation Systems
Carrier-Phase Estimation with a Phase-Locked Loop
(PLL)
Effects of Transmission Losses and Noise in Analog
Communication Systems
2
Effect of Noise on Amplitude-
Modulation Systems
Effect of Noise on a Baseband System
Baseband system: there is no carrier demodulation to be performed. The receiver
consists only of an ideal lowpass filter with the bandwidth W.
The noise power at the output of the receiver for a white noise input:
W N df
N
P
W
W
n 0
0
2
0 }

= =
Then
The baseband signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is
W N
P
N
S
R
b 0
=
|
.
|

\
|
P
R
: the received power
-W W
N
0
/2
f
S
X
(f)
Example
Find the SNR in a baseband system with a bandwidth of 5 kHz and with N
0
/2 =
10
14
W/Hz. The transmitter power is one kilowatt and the channel attenuation is 10
12
.
Solution
We have P
R
= 10
12
P
T
= 10
12
10
3
= 10-
9
Watts. Therefore,
20
5000 10
10
14
9
0
=

= =
|
.
|

\
|

W N
P
N
S
R
b
This is equivalent to 10 log
10
20 = 13 dB.
Noise
The message
signal m(t)
modulator
u(t)
channel
+
additive noise
bandpass
filter
demodulator
r(t)=u(t)+n(t)
filtered noise
output signal y(t)
lowpass
filter
o
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
Effect of Noise on DSB-SC AM
In DSB-SC AM, the transmitted signal is
) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f t m A t u
c c
t =
The received signal at the output of the receiver noise-limiting filter is the sum of
this signal and filtered noise.
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
) 2 cos( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
t f t n t f t n
t f t m A
t n t u t r
c s c c
c c
t t
t
+
=
+ =
Multiplying r(t) by a locally generated sinusoid cos(2f
c
t + )
| | | | ) 4 sin( ) ( ) 4 cos( ) (
2
1
) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) (
2
1
) 4 cos( ) (
2
1
) cos( ) (
2
1
) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
| t | t | |
| t |
| t | t t | t
+ + + + +
+ + =
+ + + = +
t f t n t f t n t n t n
t f t m A t m A
t f t n t f t f t m A t f t r
c s c c s c
c c c
c c c c c
baseband signal
Effect of Noise on DSB-SC AM
| | ) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) (
2
1
) cos( ) (
2
1
) ( | | | t n t n t m A t y
s c c
+ + =
The output after the lowpass filter is
If a phase-locked loop is employed, then = 0 and the demodulator is
called a coherent or synchronous demodulator.
Assume that = 0. Hence,
)] ( ) ( [
2
1
) ( t n t m A t y
c c
+ =
The message signal power is
M
c
o
P
A
P
4
2
=
The power content of the message signal
The noise power is
n n n
P P P
c o
4
1
4
1
= =
since the power contents of n
c
(t) and n(t) are equal
Effect of Noise on DSB-SC AM
The power content of n(t)

s
=
otherwise , 0
| | ,
2
) (
0
W f f
N
f S
c
n
The noise power is
0
0
2 4
2
) (
WN W
N
df f S P
n n
= =
=
}

The output SNR is
W N
P
WN
P A
WN
P
A
P
P
N
S
R M c
M
c
n
o
o
o DSB
0 0
2
0
2
2
2
4
1
4
= =
= =
|
.
|

\
|
2
2
M c
R
P A
P = P
R
: the received signal power
DSB-SC AM does not provide any SNR improvement
over a simple baseband communication system.
is identical to (S/N)
b
Effect of Noise on SSB AM
In SSB AM, the transmitted signal is
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f t m A t f t m A t u
c c c c
t t =
The input to the demodulator is
) 2 sin( )) ( ) ( ( ) 2 cos( )) ( ) ( (
) ( ) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
t f t n t m A t f t n t m A
t n t f t m A t f t m A t r
c s c c c c
c c c c
t t
t t
+ + =
+ =
Assume that demodulation occurs with an ideal phase reference,
the output of the lowpass filter is
) (
2
1
) (
2
) ( t n t m
A
t y
c
c
+ =
Again, the signal and the noise components are additive and a
meaningful SNR at the receiver output can be defined.
Effect of Noise on SSB AM
The message signal power is
M
c
o
P
A
P
4
2
=
The power content of the message signal
The noise power is
n n n
P P P
c o
4
1
4
1
= =
where
0
0
2
2
) ( WN W
N
df f S P
n n
= = =
}

The output SNR is
0
2
0
2
4
1
4
WN
P A
WN
P
A
P
P
N
S
M c
M
c
n
o
o
o SSB
= = =
|
.
|

\
|
M c U R
P A P P
2
= =
The SNR in an SSB system is equivalent to
that of a DSB system.
in SSB AM,
b
R
o
N
S
WN
P
N
S
SSB
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
.
|

\
|
0
thus,
Effect of Noise on Conventional AM
In conventional DSB AM, the modulated signal is
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) ( t f t am A t u
c n c
t + =
The received signal at the input to the demodulator is
| | ) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( )] ( 1 [ ) ( t f t n t f t n t am A t r
c s c c n c
t t + + =
Assume a synchronous demodulator is employed. After mixing and
lowpass filtering, we have
| | ) ( )] ( 1 [
2
1
) (
1
t n t am A t y
c n c
+ + =
the modulation index
normalized message signal
The DC component in the demodulated waveform is removed by a DC block
and, hence, the lowpass filter output is
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) ( t n t am A t y
c n c
+ =
] 1 [
2
2
2
n
M
c
R
P a
A
P + =
In conventional DSB AM, the received signal power is
where we have assumed that the message
process is zero mean (See pp. 137 ).
The output SNR is
| |
b
b M
M
R
M
M
M
c
M
M M c
n
M c
n
o
o
N
S
N
S
P a
P a
W N
P
P a
P a
W N
P a
A
P a
P a
W N
P a A
P
P a A
P
P
N
S
n
n
n
n
n
n
n n
c
n
o AM
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
=
+
+
= =
= =
|
.
|

\
|
q
2
2
0
2
2
0
2
2
2
2
0
2
2
2
2
1 1
1
2
1 2
4
1
4
1
the modulation efficiency, small than 1
The SNR in conventional AM is
always smaller than the SNR in
a baseband system
The reason for this loss is that a large part
of the transmitter power is used to send
the carrier component of the modulated
signal and not the desired signal.
Effect of Noise on the envelope
detector
The input to the envelope detector is
| | ) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( )] ( 1 [ ) ( t f t n t f t n t am A t r
c s c c n c
t t + + =
The envelope of r(t) is given by
| | ) ( ) ( )] ( 1 [ ) (
2 2
t n t n t am A t V
s c n c r
+ + + =
Assume that the signal component in r(t) is
much stronger than the noise component, that is,
( ) 1 )] ( 1 [ ) ( ~ + << t am A t n P
n c s
Therefore, we have a high probability that
) ( )] ( 1 [ ) ( t n t am A t V
c n c r
+ + ~
After removing the DC component, we obtain
) ( ) ( ) ( t n t am A t y
c n c
+ ~
Under the assumption of high
SNR at the receiver input, the
performance of synchronous and
envelope demodulators is the
same.
If the noise power is much stronger
than the signal power, the signal and
the noise components are no longer
additive (the signal component is
multiplied by noise and is no longer
distinguishable).
Example
Answer
Effects of Transmission Losses and
Noise in Analog Communication
Systems
Two dominant factors that limit the performance of the system
Additive noise
Signal attenuation
Basically all physical channels, including wireline and radio
channels, are lossy.
Signal attenuation renders the communication signal more
vulnerable to additive noise
Characterization of Thermal Noise
Sources
Thermal noise is produced by the random movement of electrons due
to thermal agitation.
The power spectral density of thermal noise is given as
/Hz (volts)
) 1 (
| | 2
) (
2
| |

=
kT
f
R
e
f R
f S

: Plancks constant (equal to 6.6 1034 J sec)

k : Boltzmanns constant (equal to 1.38 1023 J/K)
T : the temperature in degrees Kelvin
R : the resistance ()
At frequencies below 10
12
Hz (which includes all conventional
communication systems) and at room temperature,
kT
f
e
kT
f
| |
1
| |

+ ~
Consequently, the power spectral density is well
approximated as
/Hz (volts) 2 ) (
2
RkT f S
R
=
When connected to a load resistance with value R
L
, the noise voltage delivers the
maximum power when R = R
L
. In such a case, the load is matched to the source and
the maximum power delivered to the load is E[N
2
(t)]/4R
L
. Therefore, the power
spectral density of the noise voltage across the load resistor is
W/Hz
2
) (
kT
f S
n
=
kT is usually denoted by N
0
. Hence, the power spectral density
of thermal noise is generally expressed as
W/Hz
2
) (
0
N
f S
n
=
For example, at room temperature (T
0
= 290

K), N
0
= 4 10
21
W/Hz.
Effective Noise Temperature and
Noise Figure
When we employ amplifiers in communication systems to boost the level of a
signal, we are also amplifying the noise corrupting the signal.
we may model an amplifier as a filter with the frequency response
characteristic H(f).
Noise power at the output of the network is
} }

= = df f H
N
df f H f S P
n no
2 0 2
| ) ( |
2
| ) ( | ) (
}

= df f H
G
B
neq
2
| ) ( |
2
1
Recall that the noise equivalent bandwidth of the filter is defined as
G = |H(f)|
2
max
is the maximum available power gain of the
amplifier.
The output noise power from an ideal amplifier may be expressed as
neq no
B GN P
0
=
Any practical amplifier introduces additional noise at its output due to
internally generated noise. Hence, the noise power at its output may be
expressed as
ni neq
ni neq no
P GkTB
P B GN P
+ =
+ =
0
the power of the amplifier output due to
internally generated noise
) ( ) (
e neq
neq
ni
neq no
T T GkB
GkB
P
T GkB P + = + =
Therefore,
neq
ni
e
GkB
P
T =
where is called the effective noise temperature of
the two-port network (amplifier).
A signal source at the input to the amplifier with power P
si
will produce an output
with power
si so
GP P =
Hence, the output SNR from the two-port network is
i
e
e
neq
si
e
neq
si
no
so
o
N
S
T
T
T
T
B N
P
T
T
GkTB
GP
P
P
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
=
+
= =
|
.
|

\
|
1
1
) 1 (
) 1 (
0
the input SNR to the two-port network
The SNR at the output of the amplifier is degraded (reduced) by the factor
(1+T
e
/T). An ideal amplifier is one for which T
e
= 0.
When T is taken as room temperature T
0
(290

K), the factor F= (1+T

e
/ T
0
) is
called the noise figure of the amplifier.
i o
N
S
F N
S
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
1
Consequently,
By taking the logarithm of both sides,
i o
N
S
F
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
log 10 log 10 log 10
the loss in SNR due to the additional noise introduced by
the amplifier
The overall noise figure of a cascade of K amplifiers with gains G
k

and corresponding noise figures F
k
, 1 k K is
1 2 1 2 1
3
1
2
1
...
1
.....
1 1

+ =
K
K
G G G
F
G G
F
G
F
F F Fries formula
F
1
is the dominant term, which is the noise figure of the first amplifier stage.
The front end of a receiver should have a low noise figure and a high gain.
Transmission Losses
The amount of signal attenuation generally depends on the physical medium, the
frequency of operation, and the distance between the transmitter and the
receiver.
Define the loss L in signal transmission as the ratio of the input
(transmitted) power to the output (received) power of the channel, i.e.,
R
T
P
P
L =
or, in decibels,
R T
P P L L log 10 log 10 log 10
dB
=
In wireline channels, the transmission loss is usually given in terms of
decibels per unit length, e.g., dB/km.
For example, the transmission loss in coaxial cable of 1 cm diameter
is about 2 dB/km at a frequency of 1 Mhz. This loss generally
increases with an increase in frequency.
In line-of-sight radio systems, the transmission loss is given as
2
4
|
.
|

\
|
=

td
L
= c/f: the wavelength of the transmitted signal
c: the speed of light (3 10
8
m/s)
f: the frequency of the transmitted signal
d: the distance between the transmitter and the receiver in meters
free-space path loss
Example
Determine the free-space path loss for a signal transmitted at f = 1 MHz
over distances of 10 km and 20 km.
Doubling the distance in radio transmission increases the free-space
path loss by 6 dB.
Solution
= 300 m. The loss for the 10 km path is
dB 44 . 52 ) 300 / 10 4 ( log 20
4
10 dB
= = t L
The loss for the 20 km path is
dB 44 . 58 ) 300 / 10 8 ( log 20
4
10 dB
= = t L
Repeaters for Signal Transmission
Analog repeaters are basically amplifiers that are generally used in telephone
wireline channels and microwave line-of-sight radio channels to boost the signal
level and, thus, to offset the effect of signal attenuation in transmission through
the channel.
L
P
P
T
R
=
The input signal power at the input to the repeater is
The output power from the repeater is
L
P
G GP P
T
R o
= =
We may select the amplifier gain G to offset the transmission loss. Hence, G
= L and P
0
= P
T
.
Now, the SNR at the output of the repeater is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
neq
T
a
neq
T
a neq
R
a
i a
B N
P
L F
B LN
P
F B N
P
F
N
S
F N
S
0
0 0
1
1
1 1
1
We may view the lossy transmission medium followed by the amplifier as a cascade
of two networks: one with a noise figure L and the other with a noise figure F
a
. For
the cascade connection, the overall noise figure is
a
a
G
F
L F
1
+ =
If we select G
a
= 1/L, then
a
a
LF
L
F
L F =

+ =
/ 1
1
The cascade of the lossy transmission medium and the amplifier is
equivalent to a single network with the noise figure LF
a
.
Now, suppose that we transmit the signal over K segments of the channel, where
each segment has its own repeater. Then, if F
i
= iF
ai
is the noise figure of the i
th

section, the overall noise figure for the K sections is
) / )...( / )( / (
1
......
) / )( / (
1
/
1
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
3 3
1 1
2 2
1 1
K aK a a
aK K
a a
a
a
a
a
L G L G L G
F L
L G L G
F L
L G
F L
F L F

+

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
neq
T
i o
B N
P
F N
S
F N
S
0
1 1
Therefore, the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the repeater (amplifier) at
the receiver is
In the important special case where the K segments are identical, i.e., L
i
= L for all i
and F
ai
= F
a
for all i, and where the amplifier gains are designed to offset
the losses in each segment, i.e., G
ai
= L
i
for all i, then the overall noise figure
becomes
a a
KLF K KLF F ~ = ) 1 (
Hence,
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
|
.
|

\
|
neq
T
a o
B N
P
KLF N
S
0
1
The overall noise figure for the cascade of
the K identical segments is simply K times
the noise figure of one segment.
Example
A signal with the bandwidth 4 kHz is to be transmitted a distance of 200 km over
a wireline channel that has an attenuation of 2 dB/km.
(a) Determine the transmitter power P
T
required to achieve an SNR of (S/N)
o
= 30 dB
at the output of the receiver amplifier that has a noise figure F
adB
= 5 dB.
(b) Repeat the calculation when a repeater is inserted every 10 km in the wireline
channel, where the repeater has a gain of 20 dB and a noise figure of F
a
= 5 dB.
Assume that the noise equivalent bandwidth of each repeater is B
neq
= 4 kHz and
that N
o
= 4 10
21
W/Hz.
(a). The total loss in the 200 km wireline is 400 dB. From Equation (6.5.35), with K = 1,
we have
T neq a
P B N F L N S log 10 ) log( 10 log 10 log 10 ) / log( 10
0
+ =
Hence,
dB 0
dB 0 dB dB dB
) ( 400 5 30
log 10 ) ( ) / (
neq
neq a o T
B N
L B N F N S P
+ + + =
+ + + =
But
dBW 168 ) 10 6 . 1 log( 10 ) (
17
dB 0
= =

neq
B N
where dBW denotes the power level relative to one Watt. Therefore,
dB 267 168 435
dB
= =
T
P
Watts 10 5
26
=
T
P
which is an astronomical figure.
(b). The use of a repeater every 10 km reduces the per segment loss to L
dB
= 20 dB.
There are 20 repeaters and each repeater has a noise figure of 5 dB. Hence,
Equation (6.5.35) yields
T neq a o
P B N F L K N S log 10 ) log( 10 log 10 log 10 log 10 ) / (
0 dB
+ =
and
dB
168 5 20 13 30
T
P + + =
Therefore, dBW 100
dB
=
T
P
picowatts) (0.1 Watts 10
10
=
T
P
However, analog repeaters add noise to the signal and, consequently, degrade the
output SNR.
the advantage of using analog repeaters in communication
channels that span large distances
The transmitted power P
T
must be increased linearly with the number K of
repeaters in order to maintain the same (S/N)
o
as K increases. For every factor of
two increase in K, the transmitted power P
T
must be increased by 3 dB.
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
|
.
|

\
|
neq
T
a o
B N
P
KLF N
S
0
1
Example
We assume that the message is a wide-sense stationary random process M(t) with
the autocorrelation function
R
M
() = 16 sinc
2
(10000).
We also know that all the realizations of the message process satisfy the condition
max |m(t)| = 6. We want to transmit this message to a destination via a channel
with a 50 dB attenuation and additive white noise with the power spectral density
S
n
(f) = N
0
/2 = 10
12
W/Hz. We also want to achieve an SNR at the modulator output
of at least 50 dB. What is the required transmitter power and channel bandwidth if
we employ the following modulation schemes?
1. DSB AM.
2. SSB AM.
3. Conventional AM with a modulation index equal to 0.8.
Solution
The power spectral density of the message process is
|
.
|

\
|
A = =
10000 10000
16
)] ( [ ) (
f
R f S
M M
t
Therefore, the bandwidth W = 10,000 Hz.
2
10
10 10 2
8
4 12
0
R R R
b
P P
W N
P
N
S
=

= =
|
.
|

\
|

The baseband SNR is

The channel attenuation is 50 dB. That is,
T R
R
T
P P
P
P
5
10 , 50 log 10

= =
Hence,
2
10
2
10 10
3 8 5
T T
b
P P
N
S
=

=
|
.
|

\
|

1. For DSB-SC AM, we have
5
3
10 dB 50
2
10
= ~ =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
T
b o
P
N
S
N
S
Therefore, P
T
= 200 Watt
and
BW = 2W = 2 10000Hz = 20 kHz.
2. For SSB AM, we have
5
3
10
2
10
= =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
T
b o
P
N
S
N
S
Therefore, P
T
= 200 Watt
and
BW = W = 10000Hz = 10 kHz.
3. For conventional AM, with a = 0.8,
2
10
3
T
b o
P
N
S
N
S
q q =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
where is the modulation efficiency given by
n
n
M
M
P a
P a
2
2
1+
= q
Since max |m(t)| = 6, we have
( ) 36 | ) ( | max
2
M M
M
P
t m
P
P
n
= =
16 | ) (
0
= =
= t
t
M M
R P
therefore,
9
4
36
16
= =
n
M
P
22 . 0
9
4
8 . 0 1
9
4
8 . 0
2
2
~
+

= q Hence,
5 3
3
10 10 11 . 0
2
10
22 . 0 = = ~
|
.
|

\
|
T
T
o
P
P
N
S
Therefore,
P
T
909 Watt. The bandwidth of conventional AM is equal to the bandwidth
of DSB AM, i.e., BW = 2W = 20 kHz.
Outline
Effect of Noise on Amplitude-Modulation Systems
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
Comparison of Analog-Modulation Systems
Carrier-Phase Estimation with a Phase-Locked Loop
(PLL)
Effects of Transmission Losses and Noise in Analog
Communication Systems
35
Effect of Noise on Angle
Modulation
Since noise is additive, the noise is directly added to
the amplitude-modulated signals.
In a frequency-modulated signal, the noise is added to
the amplitude and the message information is
contained in the frequency of the modulated signal.
Therefore, the message is contaminated by the noise to
the extent that the added noise changes the frequency of
the modulated signal.

The frequency of a signal can be described by its zero crossings. Therefore, the
effect of additive noise on the demodulated FM signal can be described by the
changes that it produces in the zero crossings of the modulated FM signal.
The effect of noise in a low-power FM
system is more severe than in a high-power
FM system.
In a low power signal, noise causes more
changes in the zero crossings.
In angle modulations, the higher the
signal level, the lower the noise level.

+
+
=
+ =
}

PM )), ( 2 cos(
FM ), ) ( 2 2 cos(
)) ( 2 cos( ) (
t m k t f A
d m k t f A
t t f A t u
p c c
t
f c c
c c
t
t t t t
| t
The angle-modulated signal is represented as
The output of this filter is
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
t f t n t f t n t u
t n t u t r
c s c c
t t + =
+ =
Assume that the signal power is much higher than the noise power. Then, the
bandpass noise is represented as
)) ( 2 cos( ) (
) (
) (
arctan 2 cos ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
t t f t V
t n
t n
t f t n t n t n
n c n
c
s
c s c
u + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
t
t
V
n
(t): the envelope of the bandpass noise process

n
(t): the phase of the bandpass noise process
The assumption that the signal is much larger than the noise means that
1 ) ) ( ( ~ <<
c n
A t V P
) ( sin ) ( ) (
) ( cos ) ( ) (
t t V t n
t t V t n
n n s
n n c
u =
u =
Note:
As with conventional-AM noise-performance analysis, a precise analysis is
quite involved due to the nonlinearity of the demodulation process.
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
u + +
u + ~
|
|
.
|

\
|
u +
u
+ +
u + ~
)) ( ) ( sin(
) (
) ( 2 cos
)) ( ) ( cos( ) (
)) ( ) ( cos( ) (
)) ( ) ( sin( ) (
arctan ) ( 2 cos
)) ( ) ( cos( ) ( ) (
t t
A
t V
t t f
t t t V A
t t t V A
t t t V
t t f
t t t V A t r
n
c
n
c
n n c
n n c
n n
c
n n c
| | t
|
|
|
| t
|
0 when ) tan( ~ x x x
noise component
Noting that

=
}

FM ) ( 2
PM ), (
) ( t
f
p
d m k
t m k
t
t t t
|
we see that the output of the demodulator is given by

+
+
=

u +
u +
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
u +
u +
=
FM ) (
2
1
) (
PM ) (
FM )) ( ) ( sin(
) (
2
1
) (
PM )) ( ) ( sin(
) (
) (
FM )) ( ) ( sin(
) (
) (
2
1
PM )) ( ) ( sin(
) (
) (
) (
t Y
dt
d
t m k
t Y m(t) k
t t
A
t V
dt
d
t m k
t t
A
t V
t m k
t t
A
t V
t
dt
d
t t
A
t V
t
t y
n f
n p
n
c
n
f
n
c
n
p
n
c
n
n
c
n
t
|
t
|
| |
t
| |
)) ( ) ( sin(
) (
) (
def
t t
A
t V
t Y
n
c
n
n
| u =
where we have defined
The noise component is
inversely proportional to the
signal amplitude A
c
.
The higher the signal level,
the lower the noise level.
In AM systems, the noise component is independent of the signal component,
and a scaling of the signal power does not affect the received noise power.
| |
| | ) ( sin ) ( ) ( cos ) (
1
) ( sin ) ( cos ) ( ) ( cos ) ( sin ) (
1
)) ( ) ( sin(
) (
) (
t t n t t n
A
t t t V t t t V
A
t t
A
t V
t Y
c s
c
n n n n
c
n
c
n
n
| |
| |
|
=
u u =
u =
) ( sin ) ( ) (
) ( cos ) ( ) (
t t V t n
t t V t n
n n s
n n c
u =
u =
(t) is either proportional to the message signal or proportional to its integral.
In both cases, it is a slowly varying signal compared to n
c
(t) and n
s
(t), i.e., (t)
.
The bandwidth of the filtered noise at the demodulator input is half of the
bandwidth of the modulated signal, which is many times the bandwidth of
the message signal.
| | | | sin ) ( cos ) (
1
) ( t n t n
A
t Y
c s
c
n
=
Therefore,
Now notice that in this case, f
c
is the axis of symmetry of the bandpass noise
process. Therefore, the conditions leading to the result of Exercise 5.3.3 are valid
with a = cos /A
c
and b = sin /A
c
. By using the result of Exercise 5.3.3, we have
2
2 2
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
c
n
n Y
A
f S
f S b a f S
c
c n
= + =
Note: the bandwidth of the filtered noise process extends from f
c
B
c
/2 to f
c

+ B
c
/2; hence, the spectrum of n
c
(t) extends from - B
c
/2 to B
c
/2. Therefore,

s
= =
otherwise , 0
2
| | ,
) ( ) (
0
1 1
c
X X
B
f N
f S f S
s c

s
=
otherwise , 0
| | ,
) (
0
W f N
f S
c
n

s
=
otherwise , 0
2
| | ,
) (
2
0 c
c
Y
B
f
A
N
f S
n
and
This equation provides an expression for the power spectral density of
the filtered noise at the front end of the receiver.
In the case of FM modulation, the process Y
n
(t) is differentiated and
scaled by 1/2.
The power spectral density of the process is given by ) (
2
1
t Y
dt
d
n
t

s
= =
otherwise , 0
2
| | ,
) ( ) (
4
4
2
2
0
2
2
2 2 c
c
Y Y
B
f f
A
N
f S f f S
f
n n
t
t
W f
f
A
N
A
N
f S
c
c
n
o
<

= | | for
FM ,
PM ,
) (
2
2
0
2
0
The demodulated-noise power spectral
density is given
PM
FM
The effect of noise in FM for higher frequency
components is much higher than the effect of noise
on lower frequency components.
The noise power at the
output of the lowpass filter is

=
=
}
}
}

FM ,
3
2
PM ,
2

FM ,
PM ,
) (
2
3
0
2
0
2
2
0
2
0
c
c
W
W
c
W
W
c
W
W
n n
A
W N
A
WN
df f
A
N
df
A
N
df f S P
o o

FM ,
PM ,
2
2

=
M f
M p
n
P k
P k
P
o
The output signal power is
Then the signal-to-noise ratio is

= =
|
.
|

\
|
FM ,
2
3
PM ,
2
0
2
2 2
0
2 2
def
W N
P
W
A k
W N
P
A k
P
P
N
S
M
c f
M
c p
n
s
o
o
o

=
=
FM ,
| ) ( | max
PM , | ) ( | max
W
t m k
t m k
f
f
p p
|
|
Noting that is the received signal power, denoted by P
R
, and
2
2
c
A
we may express the output SNR as
( )
( )

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
FM ,
| ) ( | max
3
| ) ( | max
3
PM ,
| ) ( | max | ) ( | max

2
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
b
f M
M
f
R
b
p M
M
p
R
o
N
S
t m
P
W N
P
t m
P
N
S
t m
P
W N
P
t m
P
N
S
| |
| |
where is denoted by
W N
P
R
0 b
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
The output SNR is proportional to the square of the
modulation index . Therefore, increasing increases
the output SNR.
The increase in the received signal-to-noise ratio is
obtained by increasing the bandwidth. Therefore, angle
modulation provides a way to trade off bandwidth for
transmitted power.
Note that in the preceding, expression, P
M
/(max|m(t)|)
2
is the average-to-peak-
power-ratio of the message signal (or equivalently, the power content of the
normalized message, P
Mn
). Therefore,

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
FM , 3
PM ,

2
2
b
M f
b
M p
o
N
S
P
N
S
P
N
S
n
n
|
|
Now using Carsons rule B
c
= 2( + 1)W, we can express the output SNR in
terms of the bandwidth expansion factor, which is defined as the ratio of the
channel bandwidth to the message bandwidth and is denoted by :
) 1 ( 2
def
+ = = O |
W
B
c
Therefore,

|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

O
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

O
=
|
.
|

\
|
FM ,
| ) ( | max
1
2
3
PM ,
| ) ( | max
1
2

2
2
b
M
b
M
o
N
S
t m
P
N
S
t m
P
N
S
Although we can increase the output signal-to-noise ratio
by increasing , having a large means having a large B
c

(by Carsons rule). Having a large B
c
means having a large
noise power at the input of the demodulator.
1 ) ) ( ( ~ <<
c n
A t V P
will no longer apply and that the preceding
analysis will not hold.
The approximation
However, in angle modulation, the message is in the phase of the modulated signal
and, consequently, increasing the transmitter power does not increase the
demodulated message power.
In both amplitude modulation and angle modulation, increasing the transmitter
power (and consequently the received power) will increase the output signal-to-
noise ratio, but the mechanisms are totally different.
In AM, any increase in the received power directly increases the signal power at
the output of the demodulator.
In angle modulation, the output signal-to-noise ratio is increased by a decrease in
the received noise power.

=
FM ,
3
2
PM ,
2
2
3
0
2
0
c
c
n
A
W N
A
WN
P
o
In FM, the effect of noise is higher at higher frequencies.
Signal components at higher frequencies will suffer more
from noise than signal components at lower frequencies.
In some applications where FM is used to transmit SSB-
FDM signals, those channels that are modulated on higher
frequency carriers suffer from more noise.
To compensate for this effect, such channels must have a
higher signal level.
The quadratic characteristics of the demodulated noise
spectrum in FM is the basis of preemphasis and deemphasis
filtering.

Example
What is the required received power in an FM system with = 5 if W = 15 kHz
and N
0
= 10
14
W/Hz? The power of the normalized message signal is assumed to
be 0.1 Watt and the required SNR after demodulation is 60 dB.
Solution
We use the relation
with = 10
6
, = 5, P
Mn
= 0.1, N
0
= 10
14
, and W = 15,000, to obtain
P
R
= 2 10
5
or 20 microwatts.
W N
P
P
N
S
R
M f
o
n
0
2
3| =
|
.
|

\
|

o
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
Threshold Effect in Angle
Modulation
The noise analysis of angle-demodulation schemes is
based on the assumption that the signal-to-noise ratio
at the demodulator input is high.
With this crucial assumption, we observe that the signal
and noise components at the demodulator output are
additive and we are able to carry out the analysis.
Particularly at low signal-to-noise ratios, signal and
noise components are so intermingled that we cannot
recognize the signal from the noise.
Therefore, no meaningful signal-to-noise ratio as a
measure of performance can be defined.
Threshold Effect in Angle
Modulation (cont.)
Threshold Effect - there exists a specific signal-to-
noise ratio at the input of the demodulator (known as
the threshold SNR) below which signal mutilation
occurs.
The existence of the threshold effect places an upper
limit on the tradeoff between bandwidth and power in
an FM system.
This limit is a practical limit in the value of the
modulation index
f
. (
f
, B
c
, noise power at the input
of the demodulator )
Threshold Effect analysis in FM
At threshold, the following approximate relation between and
f
holds in
an FM system:
b
R
N
S
W N
P
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
) 1 ( 20
,
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
|
th b
N
S
Given a received power P
R
, we can calculate the maximum allowed to make
sure that the system works above threshold.
Also, given a bandwidth allocation of B
c
, we can find an appropriate using
Carsons rule B
c
= 2( + 1)W.
Then, using the preceding threshold relation, we determine the required
minimum received power to make the whole allocated bandwidth usable.
Two factors that limit the value of the modulation
index
The limitations on channel bandwidth (which affect
through Carsons rule)


The limitation on the received power (which limits the
value of )
W B
c
) 1 ( 2 + = |
) 1 ( 20
,
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
|
th b
N
S
Threshold
These plots are drawn for a sinusoidal
message for which
( ) 2
1
| ) ( | max
2
=
t m
P
M
b o
N
S
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
2
2
3
|
In such a case,
As an example, for = 5, this relation yields
dB dB
| 7 . 15 |
b o
N
S
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
and
dB 8 . 20 ~ 120
,
=
|
.
|

\
|
th b
N
S
Threshold
For = 5, we have
dB dB
| 8 . 7 |
b o
N
S
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
and
dB 8 . 17 ~ 60
,
=
|
.
|

\
|
th b
N
S
For example, = 20 dB. Then
regardless of the available bandwidth,
we cannot use = 5 for such a system
because the system will operate below
threshold.
b
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
we can use = 2. This yields an SNR
equal to 27.8 dB at the output of the
receiver.
This is an improvement of 7.8 dB over
a baseband system.
In general, if we want to employ the maximum available bandwidth, we must
choose the largest possible that guarantees that the system will operate above
threshold. This is the value of that satisfies
) 1 ( 20
,
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
|
th b
N
S
By substituting this value into Equation (6.2.22), we obtain
n
M
o
P
N
S
) 1 ( 60
2
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
| |
which relates a desired output SNR to the highest possible that
achieves that SNR
(for FM system)
Example
Design an FM system that achieves an SNR at the receiver equal to 40 dB and
requires the minimum amount of transmitter power. The bandwidth of the
channel is 120 kHz; the message bandwidth is 10 kHz; the average-to-peak
power ratio for the message, is 0.5; and the (one-sided) noise
power spectral density is N
0
= 10
8
W/Hz. What is the required transmitter
power if the signal is attenuated by 40 dB in transmission through the channel?
( )
2
| ) ( | max t m
P
P
M
M
n
=
Solution
First, we have to see whether the threshold or the bandwidth impose a more
restrictive bound on the modulation index. By Carsons rule,
W B
c
) 1 ( 2 + = |
000 , 10 ) 1 ( 2 000 , 120 + = |
from which we obtain = 5. Using the relation
n
M
o
P
N
S
) 1 ( 60
2
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
| |
with = 10
4
, we obtain 6.6.
o
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
Since the value of given by the bandwidth constraint is less than the value of
given by the power constraint, we are limited in bandwidth (as opposed to
being limited in power).
Therefore, we choose = 5, which, when substituted in the expansion for the
output SNR,
b o
N
S
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
2
2
3
|
yields
dB 26 . 24 6 . 266
3
800
~ = =
|
.
|

\
|
b
N
S
Since with W = 10000 and N
0
= 10
8
, we obtain
W N
P
N
S
R
b 0
= |
.
|

\
|
dB 74 . 15 0266 . 0
300
8
~ = =
R
P
and
Watts 266.66 dB 26 . 24 40 74 . 15 ~ = + =
T
P
Had there been no bandwidth constraint, we could have chosen = 6.6, which
would result in . In turn, we would have P
R
0.0153 and P
T
153 Watts. 153 ~ |
.
|

\
|
b
N
S
Preemphasis and Deemphasis
Filtering
The noise power spectral density at the output of the
demodulator in PM is flat within the message bandwidth;
however, for FM, the noise power spectrum has a parabolic
shape.
FM performs better in low-frequency components of the
message signal and PM performs better in high-frequency
components.
The objective in preemphasis and deemphasis filtering
To design a system which behaves like an ordinary frequency
modulatordemodulator pair in the low-frequency band of
the message signal, and like a phase modulatordemodulator
pair in the high-frequency band of the message signal.
A phase modulator is simply the cascade connection of
a differentiator and a frequency modulator
we need a filter in cascade with the modulator that does
not affect the signal at low frequencies and acts as a
differentiator at high frequencies. A simple highpass
filter is a very good approximation to such a system.
The filter has a constant gain for low
frequencies; at higher frequencies, it has
frequency characteristics approximated
by K|f|, which is the frequency
characteristic of a differentiator.
At the demodulator side, low frequencies have a simple FM
demodulator and high frequency components have a phase
demodulator, which is the cascade of a simple FM
demodulator and an integrator.
Therefore, the demodulator needs a filter that has a constant
gain at low frequencies and behaves as an integrator at high
frequencies. A good approximation to such a filter is a
simple lowpass filter.


The modulator filter, which emphasizes high
frequencies, is called the preemphasis filter; the
demodulator filter, which is the inverse of the
modulator filter, is called the deemphasis filter.
In commercial FM broadcasting of music and voice, first-order lowpass and
highpass RC filters with a time constant of 75 s are employed.
The frequency response of the receiver (deemphasis) filter is given by
0
1
1
) (
f
f
j
f H
d
+
=
where f
0
= 1/(27510
6
) 2100 Hz is the 3 dB frequency of the filter.
The transmitter and the receiver filters cancel the effect of each other, the received
power in the message signal remains unchanged. We only have to consider the
effect of filtering on the received noise.
The noise component after
the deemphasis filter has a
power spectral density given
by
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
1
1
| ) ( | ) ( ) (
f
f
f
A
N
f H f S f S
c
d n n
o PD
+
=
=
The noise power at the output of the
demodulator can be obtained as
(

=
+
=
=
}
}

0 0
2
3
0 0
2
0
2
2
2
0
arctan
2
1
) (
f
W
f
W
A
f N
df
f
f
f
A
N
df f S P
c
W
W
c
W
W
n n
PD PD
The ratio of the output SNRs in a simple FM system and a FM system with
preemphasis and deemphasis filtering is inversely proportional to the noise power
ratios, i.e.,
0 0
3
0
0 0
2
3
0 0
2
3
0
arctan
3
1
arctan
2
3
2
f
W
f
W
f
W
f
W
f
W
A
f N
A
W N
P
P
N
S
N
S
c
c
n
n
o
o
PD
o PD

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(

= =
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
The improvement obtained
by employing preemphasis
and deemphasis filtering
Example
In commercial FM broadcasting, W = 15 kHz, f
0
= 2100 Hz, and = 5. Assuming that
the average-to-peak power ratio of the message signal is 0.5, find the improvement
in the output SNR of FM when we use preemphasis and deemphasis filtering rather
than a baseband system.
Solution
In a regular FM system
dB
2
| 7 . 15
5 . 37
5 . 0 5 3
b
b
b o
N
S
N
S
N
S
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
+ ~
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
For FM with preemphasis and deemphasis
filtering, we have
dB
dB
3
0 0
3
0
| 29
| 3 . 13 3 . 21
2100
15000
arctan
2100
15000
2100
15000
3
1
arctan
3
1
b
o o
o
o o
N
S
N
S
N
S
N
S
N
S
f
W
f
W
f
W
N
S
PD
|
.
|

\
|
+ ~
|
.
|

\
|
+ ~
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
Outline
Effect of Noise on Amplitude-Modulation Systems
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
Comparison of Analog-Modulation Systems
Carrier-Phase Estimation with a Phase-Locked Loop
(PLL)
Effects of Transmission Losses and Noise in Analog
Communication Systems
70
Comparison of Analog-Modulation
Systems
Three important practical criteria
Bandwidth efficiency
Power efficiency (as reflected in its performance in the
presence of noise)
The ease of implementation
Bandwidth efficiency
The most bandwidth efficient analog communication
system is the SSB-SC system with a transmission
bandwidth equal to the signal bandwidth.
Widely used in bandwidth critical applications (such as voice
transmission over microwave and satellite links and some
point-to-point communication systems in congested areas).
Cannot be used for the transmission of signals that have a
significant DC component (e.g., image signals).
The VSB system is a good compromise, which has a
bandwidth slightly larger than SSB and is capable of
transmitting DC values.
PM (and particularly FM) are the least favorable systems
when bandwidth is the major concern, and their use is only
justified by their high level of noise immunity.
Power Efficiency
Angle-modulation schemes (particularly FM) provide
a high level of noise immunity and, therefore, power
efficiency.
FM is widely used on power-critical communication
links, such as point-to-point communication systems
and high-fidelity radio broadcasting.
Conventional AM and VSB+C are the least power-
efficient systems and are not used when the
transmitter power is a major concern.
Their use is justified by the simplicity of the receiver
structure.
Ease of Implementation
The receiver for conventional AM is the simplest receiver
structure
The structure of the receiver for VSB+C system is only slightly more
complicated.
FM receivers are also easy to implement.
These three systems are widely used for AM, TV, and high-
fidelity FM broadcasting (including FM stereo).
The power inefficiency of the AM transmitter is compensated by
the extremely simple structure of literally hundreds of millions
of receivers.
DSB-SC and SSB-SC require synchronous demodulation and,
therefore, their receiver structure is much more complicated
(never used for broadcasting purposes).
DSB-SC is hardly used in analog signal transmission, due to its
relative bandwidth inefficiency.

Outline
Effect of Noise on Amplitude-Modulation Systems
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
Comparison of Analog-Modulation Systems
Carrier-Phase Estimation with a Phase-Locked Loop
(PLL)
Effects of Transmission Losses and Noise in Analog
Communication Systems
75
Carrier-Phase Estimation with a
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
For DSB-SC AM, the received noise-corrupted signal at the input to the
demodulator is given by
) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
t n t f t m A
t n t u t r
c c
+ + =
+ =
| t
where m(t) is the message signal, which is assumed to be a sample
function of a zero-mean random process M(t).
r(t) has a zero mean, since the message signal m(t) is zero mean, i.e.,
m(t) contains no DC component.
Note:
The average power at the output of a narrowband filter tuned to
the carrier frequency f
c
is zero. we cannot extract a carrier-
signal component directly from r(t).
If we square r(t), the squared signal contains a spectral component at twice the
carrier frequency. That is,
terms noise ) 2 4 cos( ) (
2
1
) (
2
1
terms noise ) 2 ( cos ) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
+ + + =
+ + =
| t
| t
t f t m A t m A
t f t m A t r
c c c
c c
E[M
2
(t)] = R
M
(0) > 0 there is signal power at the frequency 2f
c
can be
used to drive a phase-locked loop (PLL).
A sinusoidal
component at 2f
c

) 2

2 8 sin(
2
1
)

( 2 sin
2
1
)

2 4 sin( ) 2 4 cos( ) (
| | t | |
| t | t
+ + + =
+ + =
t f
t f t f t e
c
c c
see pp. 186
lowpass filter
This filter is usually selected to have the relatively simple transfer function
s
s
s G
1
2
1
1
) (
t
t
+
+
=
The time constants
1
and
2
are
design parameters (
1
>>
2
) that
control the bandwidth of the loop.
The output of the loop provides
the control voltage for the VCO.
A sinusoidal signal with an instantaneous
phase given by
t t t | t d v K t f t f
t
v c c
}

+ = + ) ( 4

2 4
In a steady-state operation when the loop is tracking the phase of the
received carrier, the phase error is small; hence,
| | | | ~

)

( 2 sin
2
1
With this approximation, the PLL is represented by the linear model which
has a closed-loop transfer function
s s KG
s s KG
s H
/ ) ( 1
/ ) (
) (
+
=
2
1
2
2
)
1
( 1
1
) (
s
K
s
K
s
s H
t
t
t
+ + +
+
=
By substituting from Equation (6.4.4) for G(s), we
obtain
The denominator of H(s) may be expressed in the standard form
2
2
2 ) (
n n
s s s D e ,e + + =
, :the loop-damping factor
:the natural frequency of the loop
n
e
In terms of the loop parameters,
1
/t e K
n
=
2 / ) / 1 (
2
K
n
+ = t e ,
and
the closed-loop transfer function becomes
2
2
2 2
2
) / 2 (
) (
n n
n n n
s s
s K
s H
e ,e
e e ,e
+ +
+
=
= 1: critically damped loop response
< 1: underdamped loop response
> 1: overdamped loop response
In practice, the selection of the bandwidth of the PLL involves a trade-
off between the speed of response and the noise in the phase estimate.
On the one hand, we want to select the bandwidth of the loop to be
sufficiently wide in order to track any time variations in the phase of
the received carrier.
On the other hand, a wideband PLL allows more noise to pass into the
loop, which corrupts the phase estimate.


The (one-sided) noise-equivalent bandwidth of the loop is
n
n
neq
K
K
B
e ,
e t
t
t t t
/ 8
) ( 1
)
1
( 4
) / / 1 (
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
+
=
+
+
=
Effect of Additive Noise on Phase
Estimation
Assume that the PLL is tracking a sinusoid signal of the form
)) ( 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t t f t A t s
c c
| t + =
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f t n t f t n t n
c s c c
t t =
which is corrupted by the additive narrowband noise
The in-phase and quadrature components of the noise are assumed to be statistically
independent, stationary Gaussian noise processes with (two-sided) power spectral
density N
0
/2 W/Hz.
n(t) can be expressed as
)) ( 2 sin( ) ( )) ( 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t t f t x t t f t x t n
c s c c
| t | t + + =
) ( sin ) ( ) ( cos ) ( ) ( t t n t t n t x
s c c
| | + =
where
and
) ( cos ) ( ) ( sin ) ( ) ( t t n t t n t x
s c s
| | + =
note that
) (
)] ( ) ( [ ) ( ) (
t j
s c s c
e t jn t n t jx t x
|
+ = +
if s(t) + n(t) is multiplied by the output of the VCO and the double frequency
terms are neglected, the input to the loop filter is the noise-corrupted signal
| | | A A + A = cos ) ( sin ) ( sin ) ( t x t x A t e
s c c
| | | = A

When the power P
c
= A
c
2
/2 of the incoming signal is much larger than the
noise power, the phase estimate . Then, we may linearize the PLL
The gain parameter A
c
may be normalized to unity, provided that the noise term
is scaled by 1/A
c
. Thus, the noise term becomes
| | A A = cos
) (
sin
) (
) (
1
c
s
c
c
A
t x
A
t x
t n
Since the noise n
1
(t) is additive at the input to the loop, the variance of the phase
error , which is also the variance of the VCO output phase, is
2
0 2

c
neq
A
B N
=
|
o
is simply the ratio of the total noise power within the bandwidth of the PLL
divided by the input signal power
the (one-sided) equivalent-noise bandwidth of the loop
L

o
|
1
2

=
where
L
is defined as the signal-to-noise ratio
2 /
2 /
0
2
N B
A
neq
c
L
=
An exact analysis based on the nonlinear
PLL is mathematically tractable when G(s) =
1, which results in a first-order loop. In this
case, the probability density function for the
phase error has the form
) ( 2
) cos exp(
) (
0 L
L
I
f
t
|
|
A
= A
I
0
() is the modified Bessel function of order zero.
1/
L

The variance for the linear model is close
to the exact variance for
L
> 3
When the SNR at the input to the PLL drops below a certain value, the loop
begins to lose lock and an impulsive-type of noise, characterized as clicks, is
generated; this degrades the performance of the loop.
The squaring PLL
Let the input to the squarer be u(t) + n(t). The output is
y(t) = u
2
(t) +2 u(t)n(t)+ n
2
(t).
the noise terms
Both components have
spectral power in the
frequency band centered at 2f
c
.
The bandpass filter with
bandwidth B
neq
centered at
2f
c
, which produces the
desired sinusoidal signal
component that drives the
PLL, also passes noise due to
these two noise terms.
The squaring PLL and the Costas PLL are two practical methods for deriving a
carrier-phase estimate for the synchronous demodulation of a DSB-SC AM signal.
Let us select the bandwidth of the loop to be significantly smaller than the bandwidth
B
bp
of the bandpass filter, so that the total noise spectrum at the input to the PLL may
be approximated by a constant within the loop bandwidth.
This approximation allows us to obtain a simple expression for the variance
of the phase error as
L L
S
o
|
1
2

=
where S
L
is called the squaring
loss and is given as
L
neq bp
L
B B
S

2 /
1
1
+
=
Since S
L
< 1, we have an increase in the variance
of the phase error; this is caused by the added
noise power that results from the squaring
operation. For example, when
L
= B
bp
/2 B
neq
,
the loss is 3 dB or, equivalently, the variance in
the estimate increases by a factor of two.
Costas Loop
A second method for generating a properly phased carrier for a double sideband-
suppressed carrier AM signal is Costas loop
The received signal
) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t n t f t m A t r
c c
+ + = | t
is multiplied by cos(2f
c
t + ) and
sin(2f
c
t + ), which are outputs
from the VCO.
The two products are
| |
| | terms frequency double

sin ) (

cos ) (
2
1
cos ) (
2
)

2 cos( 2 sin ) ( 2 cos ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) (

+ + + A =
+ + + =
| | |
| t t t | t
t n t n t m
A
t f t f t n t f t n t f t m A t y
s c
c
c c s c c c c c
| |
| | terms frequency double

cos ) (

sin ) (
2
1
sin ) (
2
)

2 sin( 2 sin ) ( 2 cos ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) (

+ + A =
+ + + =
| | |
| t t t | t
t n t n t m
A
t f t f t n t f t n t f t m A t y
s c
c
c c s c c c c s
An error signal is generated by multiplying the two outputs y
c
(t) and y
s
(t) of
the lowpass filters. Thus,
| |
| |
| || | | | | |
| | |
| | |
|

cos ) (

sin ) (

sin ) (

cos ) (
4
1
cos

cos ) (

sin ) ( ) (
4
sin

sin ) (

cos ) ( ) (
4
2 sin ) (
4
) ( ' ) ( ' ) (
2
2
t n t n t n t n
t n t n t m
A
t n t n t m
A
t m
A
t y t y t e
s c s c
s c
c
s c
c
c
s c
+ +
A +
A + +
A =
=
the desired term
signal noise
signal noise
noise noise
Outline
Effect of Noise on Amplitude-Modulation Systems
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
Comparison of Analog-Modulation Systems
Carrier-Phase Estimation with a Phase-Locked Loop
(PLL)
Effects of Transmission Losses and Noise in Analog
Communication Systems
91
Effects of Transmission Losses and
Noise in Analog Communication
Systems
Two dominant factors that limit the performance of the system
Additive noise
Signal attenuation
Basically all physical channels, including wireline and radio
channels, are lossy.
Signal attenuation renders the communication signal more
vulnerable to additive noise
Characterization of Thermal Noise
Sources
Thermal noise is produced by the random movement of electrons due
to thermal agitation.
The power spectral density of thermal noise is given as
/Hz (volts)
) 1 (
| | 2
) (
2
| |

=
kT
f
R
e
f R
f S

: Plancks constant (equal to 6.6 1034 J sec)

k : Boltzmanns constant (equal to 1.38 1023 J/K)
T : the temperature in degrees Kelvin
R : the resistance ()
At frequencies below 10
12
Hz (which includes all conventional
communication systems) and at room temperature,
kT
f
e
kT
f
| |
1
| |

+ ~
Consequently, the power spectral density is well
approximated as
/Hz (volts) 2 ) (
2
RkT f S
R
=
When connected to a load resistance with value R
L
, the noise voltage delivers the
maximum power when R = R
L
. In such a case, the load is matched to the source and
the maximum power delivered to the load is E[N
2
(t)]/4R
L
. Therefore, the power
spectral density of the noise voltage across the load resistor is
W/Hz
2
) (
kT
f S
n
=
kT is usually denoted by N
0
. Hence, the power spectral density
of thermal noise is generally expressed as
W/Hz
2
) (
0
N
f S
n
=
For example, at room temperature (T
0
= 290

K), N
0
= 4 10
21
W/Hz.
Effective Noise Temperature and
Noise Figure
When we employ amplifiers in communication systems to boost the level of a
signal, we are also amplifying the noise corrupting the signal.
we may model an amplifier as a filter with the frequency response
characteristic H(f).
Noise power at the output of the network is
} }

= = df f H
N
df f H f S P
n no
2 0 2
| ) ( |
2
| ) ( | ) (
}

= df f H
G
B
neq
2
| ) ( |
2
1
Recall that the noise equivalent bandwidth of the filter is defined as
G = |H(f)|
2
max
is the maximum available power gain of the
amplifier.
The output noise power from an ideal amplifier may be expressed as
neq no
B GN P
0
=
Any practical amplifier introduces additional noise at its output due to
internally generated noise. Hence, the noise power at its output may be
expressed as
ni neq
ni neq no
P GkTB
P B GN P
+ =
+ =
0
the power of the amplifier output due to
internally generated noise
) ( ) (
e neq
neq
ni
neq no
T T GkB
GkB
P
T GkB P + = + =
Therefore,
neq
ni
e
GkB
P
T =
where is called the effective noise temperature of
the two-port network (amplifier).
A signal source at the input to the amplifier with power P
si
will produce an output
with power
si so
GP P =
Hence, the output SNR from the two-port network is
i
e
e
neq
si
e
neq
si
no
so
o
N
S
T
T
T
T
B N
P
T
T
GkTB
GP
P
P
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
=
+
= =
|
.
|

\
|
1
1
) 1 (
) 1 (
0
the input SNR to the two-port network
The SNR at the output of the amplifier is degraded (reduced) by the factor
(1+T
e
/T). An ideal amplifier is one for which T
e
= 0.
When T is taken as room temperature T
0
(290

K), the factor F= (1+T

e
/ T
0
) is
called the noise figure of the amplifier.
i o
N
S
F N
S
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
1
Consequently,
By taking the logarithm of both sides,
i o
N
S
F
N
S
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
log 10 log 10 log 10
the loss in SNR due to the additional noise introduced by
the amplifier
The overall noise figure of a cascade of K amplifiers with gains G
k

and corresponding noise figures F
k
, 1 k K is
1 2 1 2 1
3
1
2
1
...
1
.....
1 1

+ =
K
K
G G G
F
G G
F
G
F
F F Fries formula
F
1
is the dominant term, which is the noise figure of the first amplifier stage.
The front end of a receiver should have a low noise figure and a high gain.
Transmission Losses
The amount of signal attenuation generally depends on the physical medium, the
frequency of operation, and the distance between the transmitter and the
receiver.
Define the loss L in signal transmission as the ratio of the input
(transmitted) power to the output (received) power of the channel, i.e.,
R
T
P
P
L =
or, in decibels,
R T
P P L L log 10 log 10 log 10
dB
=
In wireline channels, the transmission loss is usually given in terms of
decibels per unit length, e.g., dB/km.
For example, the transmission loss in coaxial cable of 1 cm diameter
is about 2 dB/km at a frequency of 1 Mhz. This loss generally
increases with an increase in frequency.
In line-of-sight radio systems, the transmission loss is given as
2
4
|
.
|

\
|
=

td
L
= c/f: the wavelength of the transmitted signal
c: the speed of light (3 10
8
m/s)
f: the frequency of the transmitted signal
d: the distance between the transmitter and the receiver in meters
free-space path loss
Example
Determine the free-space path loss for a signal transmitted at f = 1 MHz
over distances of 10 km and 20 km.
Doubling the distance in radio transmission increases the free-space
path loss by 6 dB.
Solution
= 300 m. The loss for the 10 km path is
dB 44 . 52 ) 300 / 10 4 ( log 20
4
10 dB
= = t L
The loss for the 20 km path is
dB 44 . 58 ) 300 / 10 8 ( log 20
4
10 dB
= = t L
Repeaters for Signal Transmission
Analog repeaters are basically amplifiers that are generally used in telephone
wireline channels and microwave line-of-sight radio channels to boost the signal
level and, thus, to offset the effect of signal attenuation in transmission through
the channel.
L
P
P
T
R
=
The input signal power at the input to the repeater is
The output power from the repeater is
L
P
G GP P
T
R o
= =
We may select the amplifier gain G to offset the transmission loss. Hence, G
= L and P
0
= P
T
.
Now, the SNR at the output of the repeater is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
neq
T
a
neq
T
a neq
R
a
i a
B N
P
L F
B LN
P
F B N
P
F
N
S
F N
S
0
0 0
1
1
1 1
1
We may view the lossy transmission medium followed by the amplifier as a cascade
of two networks: one with a noise figure L and the other with a noise figure F
a
. For
the cascade connection, the overall noise figure is
a
a
G
F
L F
1
+ =
If we select G
a
= 1/L, then
a
a
LF
L
F
L F =

+ =
/ 1
1
The cascade of the lossy transmission medium and the amplifier is
equivalent to a single network with the noise figure LF
a
.
Now, suppose that we transmit the signal over K segments of the channel, where
each segment has its own repeater. Then, if F
i
= iF
ai
is the noise figure of the i
th

section, the overall noise figure for the K sections is
) / )...( / )( / (
1
......
) / )( / (
1
/
1
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
3 3
1 1
2 2
1 1
K aK a a
aK K
a a
a
a
a
a
L G L G L G
F L
L G L G
F L
L G
F L
F L F

+

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
neq
T
i o
B N
P
F N
S
F N
S
0
1 1
Therefore, the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the repeater (amplifier) at
the receiver is
In the important special case where the K segments are identical, i.e., L
i
= L for all i
and F
ai
= F
a
for all i, and where the amplifier gains are designed to offset
the losses in each segment, i.e., G
ai
= L
i
for all i, then the overall noise figure
becomes
a a
KLF K KLF F ~ = ) 1 (
Hence,
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
|
.
|

\
|
neq
T
a o
B N
P
KLF N
S
0
1
The overall noise figure for the cascade of
the K identical segments is simply K times
the noise figure of one segment.
Example
A signal with the bandwidth 4 kHz is to be transmitted a distance of 200 km over
a wireline channel that has an attenuation of 2 dB/km.
(a) Determine the transmitter power P
T
required to achieve an SNR of (S/N)
o
= 30 dB
at the output of the receiver amplifier that has a noise figure F
adB
= 5 dB.
(b) Repeat the calculation when a repeater is inserted every 10 km in the wireline
channel, where the repeater has a gain of 20 dB and a noise figure of F
a
= 5 dB.
Assume that the noise equivalent bandwidth of each repeater is B
neq
= 4 kHz and
that N
o
= 4 10
21
W/Hz.
(a). The total loss in the 200 km wireline is 400 dB. From Equation (6.5.35), with K = 1,
we have
T neq a
P B N F L N S log 10 ) log( 10 log 10 log 10 ) / log( 10
0
+ =
Hence,
dB 0
dB 0 dB dB dB
) ( 400 5 30
log 10 ) ( ) / (
neq
neq a o T
B N
L B N F N S P
+ + + =
+ + + =
But
dBW 168 ) 10 6 . 1 log( 10 ) (
17
dB 0
= =

neq
B N
where dBW denotes the power level relative to one Watt. Therefore,
dB 267 168 435
dB
= =
T
P
Watts 10 5
26
=
T
P
which is an astronomical figure.
(b). The use of a repeater every 10 km reduces the per segment loss to L
dB
= 20 dB.
There are 20 repeaters and each repeater has a noise figure of 5 dB. Hence,
Equation (6.5.35) yields
T neq a o
P B N F L K N S log 10 ) log( 10 log 10 log 10 log 10 ) / (
0 dB
+ =
and
dB
168 5 20 13 30
T
P + + =
Therefore, dBW 100
dB
=
T
P
picowatts) (0.1 Watts 10
10
=
T
P
However, analog repeaters add noise to the signal and, consequently, degrade the
output SNR.
the advantage of using analog repeaters in communication
channels that span large distances
The transmitted power P
T
must be increased linearly with the number K of
repeaters in order to maintain the same (S/N)
o
as K increases. For every factor of
two increase in K, the transmitted power P
T
must be increased by 3 dB.
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
|
.
|

\
|
neq
T
a o
B N
P
KLF N
S
0
1