IFST (1993) categorised the factors that influenced the shelf life of foods into two groups- Intrinsic

factors.

- Extrinsic factors.

Intrinsic factors are the properties of the final product. They include the following- water activity i.e. available water. - pH value and total acidity. - Redox potential. - Available oxygen. - Nutrients. - Natural micro flora and surviving microbiological counts. - Natural biochemistry of the product formulation. - Use of preservatives in product formulation. [intrinsic factors are influenced by such variables as raw material type and
quality, and product formulation and structure.]

Extrinsic factors are those factors where the final product encounters as it moves through the food chain. They include the following- Time-temperature profile during processing. Example: pressure in the headspace. - Temperature control during storage and distribution. - Relative humidity (RH) during processing, storage and distribution. - Exposure to light during processing, storage and distribution. - Environmental microbial counts during processing, storage and distribution.

- Composition of atmosphere within packaging. -Subsequent heat treatment ( e. g. reheating or cooking before consumption). - Consumer handling.

Hurdle effect :
A particular useful type of interaction occurs when factors such as reduced temperature, mild heat treatment, antioxidant action and controlled atmosphere packaging operate in concert to restrict microbial growth, the so called hurdle effect. This way of combining factors which, individually, are unable to prevent microbial growth but, in combination, provide a series of hurdles. Therefore, it allows the manufacturer to use milder processing techniques which retain more of a products sensory and nutritional properties.

The deteriorative changes thats occur during storage of food are due to the interaction of intrinsic and extrinsic factors which limiting the shelf life of foods. These changes conveniently classified as- Microbiological. - Chemical. - Physical. - Temperature related

Microbiological changes
Growth of a specific micro-organisms during storage depends on several factors, the most important being are- the initial microbial loading at the start of storage. - the physicochemical properties of food- pH, moisture content, presence of preservatives. - the processing method used in the production of food. - the external environment of the food such as the surrounding gas composition & storage temperature.

Chemical changes
Many important deteriorative changes can occur arising from reactions within the food or from reactions of food components with external species ( by oxygen). For example-

- Enzymic processes limit the shelf life of fruits and vegetables. - Oxidation reactions limit the shelf life of meat. -Rancidity and off flavor development in milk and in snack foods.

Physical changes
Moisture migration is a major cause of deteriorative physical changes in food. This is easily seen in fresh produce through moisture loss, and dry products such as breakfast cereals and biscuits can lose their crispness through moisture uptake. Migration of chemical components from the packaging material can be particularly serious in products with a long shelf life.

Temperature related changes

Deterioration can occur at both elevated and depressed temperatures. For example- In foods containing fats, more solid fat will become liquid at high temperature - producing bloom in chocolate. Fluctuating temperatures can cause ice crystal formation in frozen foods such as ice cream.

Measuring Shelf life of foods

Shelf life of foods can be measured through some methods. These are the following- Sensory methods. - Instrumental methods.

- Physical measurement methods.

- Chemical measurement methods. - Microbiological methods.

Sensory methods
Sensory measurements are a direct measure of human response, and have an inherently higher validity than instrumental measures. Many sensory test methodologies are available, but fall into two main classes(a). Analytical tests Analytical tests use human subjects as a form of instrument to measure properties of the food. For example- paired comparison test, Duo-trio test, timeintensity, triangle test etc. (b). Hedonic tests Hedonic tests measure the response of consumer populations to the food in terms of likes or dislikes. For example- one the basis preference, acceptability, relative to ideal.

Instrumental methods
Instrumental methods is an important complement to sensory methods though it has limitations. Some selected measurement variables with their instrument types are given belowMeasurement variables 1. Colour -sorting by colour 2. Temperature 3. Texture 4. Water activity 5. pH 6. Solid/liquid ratio & Crystal size Instrument type Ultraviolet, visible light etc. light detector, optical imaging. thermocouples, resistancethermometers. tenderometer , rheometer. Near infrared detector, microwaves. biosensors, immuno-sensors. Nuclear magnetic resonance

Physical measurement
The most commonly used physical tests measure the changes in the texture of products. These changes may be the result of chemical reactions occurring in the products, such as caused by the interactions of ingredients or by environmental influences such as migration of moisture through the packaging. In physical measurement hardness, crispness and snap are commonly used for shelf life testing of foods.

Chemical measurement
Chemical analyses play a vital role in shelf life testing though they can be used to measure the end points of chemical reactions occurring in food during storage or to confirm the results obtained by the sensory panels. For any given products, many chemical reactions occurs during storage. However, only the key reactions influencing changes in product quality and those are measured during shelf life testing. For example- free fatty acid content and peroxide value are the markers of rancidity of a food sample during storage.

Microbiological measurement
There are two important aspects to be considered in determining the microbiological stability of a product1. Microbiological growth, which leads to the spoilage of a food product. 2. the growth of microbiological pathogens that affect the safety of the product. For those reasons, the time of spoilage are determined by storing the product at the appropriate temperature and measuring the microbial load at staged interval. for predicting shelf life of a food product, generally 70% of the time to spoilage is taken to be the storage life.

Predicting shelf life

Two approach for predicting shelf life of food1. Accelerated shelf life testing (ASLT). 2. Predictive models.

The shelf life of a food product will depend on the following:

Formulation: high-quality ingredients, moisture content, pH, and preservatives. Process: must limit deterioration of desired properties. Packaging: must create the appropriate storage atmosphere within the package-an adequate balance of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and/or inert gases and should also provide resistance to mechanical stress. Storage conditions: must carefully control humidity, lighting, and temperature