Ultrasonic Testing Part 3

The Phenomenon of Sound

REFLECTION REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION

Law of Reflection
Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

60o

60o

Inclined incidence(not at
Incident

o 90 )

Transmitted
The sound is refracted due to differences in sound velocity in the 2 DIFFERENT materials

REFRACTION
Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0
30
Water Steel Water

Steel

Steel

Steel
Refracted

REFRACTION
Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0 The Two Materials has different VELOCITIES
30 Steel Steel 30 Water Steel

30

65

No Refraction

Refracted

Snells Law
Normal

Incident

Material 1

Material 2

Refracted

Sine I Vel in Material 1 Sine R Vel in Material 2

Snells Law
C
C
When an incident beam of sound approaches an interface of two different materials: REFRACTION occurs

Perspex

Steel

There may be more than one waveform transmitted into the second material, example: Compression and Shear
When a waveform changes into another waveform: MODE CHANGE

S S

C C

Snells Law
C
If the angle of Incident is increased the angle of refraction also increases Up to a point where the Compression Wave is at 90 from the Normal This happens at the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE

Perspex

Steel

90

1st Critical Angle

C 27.4 Compression wave refracted at 90 degrees

33 S

1st Critical Angle Calculation

C 27.2

Sine I 2730 Sine 90 5960

Perspex

C
Steel

Sin90 1 2730 SinI 5960 SinI 0.458 I 27.26

Snells Law
Calculate the 1st critical angle for a perspex/copper interface V Comp perspex : 2730m/sec V Comp copper : 4700m/sec

2730 SinI 0.5808 35.5 4700

2nd Critical Angle

C 57 C

S (Surface Wave) 90

Shear wave refracted at 90 degrees Shear wave becomes a surface wave

2nd Critical Angle Calculation

C C

57.4
Perspex Steel

Sine I 2730 Sine 90 3240

S

Sin90 1 2730 SinI 3240 SinI 0.8425 I 57.4

Snells Law
C 20

Sine I Vel in Material 1 Sine R Vel in Material 2

Perspex

Steel 48.3 C

Sine 20 2730 Sine 48.3 5960

0.4580 0.4580

Snells Law
C 15

Sine I Vel in Material 1 Sine R Vel in Material 2

Perspex

Steel 34.4 C

Sine 15 2730 Sine R 5960 5960 SinR Sin15 2730

SinR 0.565 R 34.4

Snells Law
C 20

Perspex

Steel
48.3 24 S

1st.
C

Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There are both Compression and Shear wave in the second material At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE Compression wave refracted at 90 Shear wave at 33 degrees in the material

2nd.

90
Beyond the 2nd. Critical Angle: All waves are reflected out of the material. NO wave in the material. S C

Between the 1st. And 2nd. Critical Angle: Only SHEAR wave in the material. Compression is reflected out of the material.

33

At the 2nd. Critical Angle: Shear is refracted to 90 and become SURFACE wave

Summary
Standard angle probes between 1st and 2nd critical angles (45,60,70) Stated angle is refracted angle in steel No angle probe under 35, and more than 80: to avoid being 2 waves in the same material. One Defect Two Echoes
C C S S

Sound Generation
Hammers (Wheel tapers) Magnetostrictive Lasers Piezo-electric

magnetostrictive

Piezo-Electric Effect
When exposed to an alternating current a crystal expands and contracts Converting electrical energy into mechanical

Piezo-Electric Materials
QUARTZ Resistant to wear Insoluble in water Resists ageing Inefficient converter of energy Needs a relatively high voltage
Very rarely used nowadays

LITHIUM SULPHATE Efficient receiver Low electrical impedance Operates on low voltage Water soluble Low mechanical strength Useable only up to 30C
Used mainly in medical

Polarized Crystals
Powders heated to high temperatures Pressed into shape Cooled in very strong electrical fields Examples Barium titanate (Ba Ti O3) Lead metaniobate (Pb Nb O6) Lead zirconate titanate (Pb Ti O3 or Pb Zr O3)

Most of the probes for conventional usage use

PZT : Lead Zirconate Titanate

Probes

Probes
The most important part of the probe is the crystal The crystal are cut to a particular way and thickness to give the intended properties Most of the conventional crystal are X cut to produce Y Compression wave

Probes
The frequency of the probe depends on the THICKNESS of the crystal Formula for frequency: Ff = V / 2t
Where Ff = the Fundamental frequency V = the velocity in the crystal t = the thickness of the crystal Fundamental frequency is the frequency of the material ( crystal ) where at that frequency the material will vibrate.

Probes
The Thinner the crystal the Higher the frequency Which of the followings has the Thinnest crystal ? 1 MHz Compression probe 5 MHz Compression probe 10 MHz Shear probe 25 MHz Shear probe

25 MHz Shear Probe

Probe Design
Compression Probe
Normal probe 0

Electrical connectors

Housing Damping Transducer

Probe Design
Shear Probe
Angle probe
Backing medium

Damping
Transducer
Probe Shoe

Perspex wedge

Probe Design
Twin Crystal
Transmitter Receiver Advantages Can be focused Measure thin plate Near surface resolution Disadvantages Difficult to use on curved surfaces Sizing small defects Signal amplitude / focal spot length

Separator / Insulator

Focusing lens

Ultrasonic Displays
A-Scan B-Scan End View C-Scan Plan View D-Scan Side View

P-Scan or projection scan collects and combines A, B, C & D Scan information

Ultrasonic Displays
A scan
The CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display

The Horizontal axis :

Represents time base / beam path length / distance / depth

The Vertical axis :

Represent the amount of sound energy returned to the crystal

Ultrasonic Displays
B scan The End View Display

Ultrasonic Displays
C scan The Plan View Display
C

Ultrasonic Displays
D scan The Side View Display

Ultrasonic Test Methods

Pulse Echo Through Transmission Transmission with Reflection
(pulse echo techniques where the transmitter is separate from the receiver - e.g. tandem testing, time of flight)

Pulse Echo Technique

Single probe sends and receives sound Gives an indication of defect depth and dimensions

Defect Orientation
ONLY DEFECTS HAVING A SUITABLY ORIENTATED REFLECTING SURFACE CAN BE DETECTED BY PULSE ECHO METHODS!!

Orientation favourable, sound reflected back to point of origin

Orientation unfavourable, sound not reflected back to point of origin

Through Transmission Testing

Transmitting and receiving probes on opposite sides of the specimen Pulsed or Continuous sound Presence of defect indicated by reduction in transmission signal No indication of defect location Easily automated Commonly integrated into plate rolling mills - lamination testing

Through Transmission Technique

Transmitting and receiving probes on opposite sides of the specimen Presence of defect indicated by reduction in transmission signal No indication of defect location Tx Rx

Through Transmission Technique

Advantages Less attenuation No probe ringing No dead zone Orientation does not matter Disadvantages Defect not located Defect cant be identified Vertical defects dont show Must be automated Need access to both surfaces

Transmission with Reflection

T R

Also known as:

Tandem Technique or Pitch and Catch Technique

Transmission with Reflection

T R

TANDEM TESTING

Transmission with Reflection

T R

TANDEM TESTING

Automated Inspections
Pulse Echo Through Transmission Transmission with Reflection
Contact scanning Gap scanning Immersion testing

Gap Scanning
Probe held a fixed distance above the surface (1 or 2mm) Couplant is fed into the gap

Immersion Testing
Component is placed in a water filled tank Item is scanned with a probe at a fixed distance above the surface

Immersion Testing

Immersion Testing
Water path distance Front surface
Defect

Back surface

Water path distance