Synchronous Machines

Synchronous Machines

Synchronous generators or alternators are used to convert

mechanical power derived from steam, gas, or hydraulic-turbine
to ac electric power

Synchronous generators are the primary source of electrical

energy we consume today

Large ac power networks rely almost exclusively on synchronous

generators

Synchronous motors are built in large units compare to induction

motors (Induction motors are cheaper for smaller ratings) and
used for constant speed industrial drives
Construction

Basic parts of a synchronous generator:

Rotor - dc excited winding

Stator - 3-phase winding in which the ac emf is generated

The manner in which the active parts of a synchronous

machine are cooled determines its overall physical sie and
structure
!arious Types

Salient-pole synchronous machine

Cylindrical or round-rotor synchronous machine

"# Most hydraulic tur$ines have to turn at low speeds
%$etween &' and 3'' r(min)
*# + large num$er of poles are re,uired on the rotor
-ydrogenerator
Turbine
Hydro (water)
D 10
Non-
uniform air-
gap
N
S S
N
d-axis
q-axis
Salient-.ole Synchronous /enerator
Click to edit Master text styles
Second level

Third level

Fourth level

Fifth level
Salient-.ole Synchronous /enerator
Stator
S
a
lie
n
t
-
p
o
le
r
o
t
o
r
0 "' m
1 "
m
Tur$ine
Steam
Stator
niform air-gap
Stator winding
!otor
!otor winding
"
S

#igh speed

$%&& r'min 2-pole

()&& r'min 4-pole

*irect-conductor cooling (using
hydrogen or water as coolant)
!ating up to +&&& ,-.
Tur$ogenerator
d-axis
q-axis
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous /enerator
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous /enerator
Stator
Cylindrical rotor
2peration .rinciple
The rotor of the generator is driven $y a prime-mover
+ dc current is flowing in the rotor winding which
produces a rotating magnetic field within the machine
The rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase
voltage in the stator winding of the generator
3lectrical 4re,uency
3lectrical fre,uency produced is loc5ed or synchronied to
the mechanical speed of rotation of a synchronous
generator:



where fe 6 electrical fre,uency in -
P 6 num$er of poles
nm6 mechanical speed of the rotor7 in r(min
(+&
m
e
n P
f
/enerated !oltage
The generated voltage of a synchronous generator is given $y
where 6 flux in the machine %function of If)
fe 6 electrical fre,uency
Kc= synchronous machine constant
Saturation characteristic of a synchronous generator#
If
E
e c
f K E
!oltage Regulation
. convenient way to compare the voltage behaviour of two
generators is by their voltage regulation (VR)/ 0he VR of a
synchronous generator at a given load, power factor, and at rated
speed is defined as
1here Vfl is the full-load terminal voltage, and Enl (e2ual to
Ef) is the no-load terminal voltage (internal voltage) at rated
speed when the load is removed without changing the field
current/ 3or lagging power factor (PF), VR is fairly positive, for
unity PF, VR is small positive and for leading PF, VR is
negative/
%
V
V E
VR
fl
fl nl
(&&

3,uivalent Circuit8"
o
0he internal voltage Ef produced in a machine is not usually the
voltage that appears at the terminals of the generator/
o
0he only time Ef is same as the output voltage of a phase is
when there is no armature current flowing in the machine/
o
0here are a number of factors that cause the difference between
Ef and Vt4

0he distortion of the air-gap magnetic field by the current flowing

in the stator, called the armature reaction

0he self-inductance of the armature coils/

0he resistance of the armature coils/

0he effect of salient-pole rotor shapes/

generator
motor
Ia
Ia
Ef
Ere
s
Vt
jX
jXl Ra
+
+
+
3,uivalent Circuit8*
52uivalent circuit of a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine
.hasor 1iagram

a
r
Ia
E
f
E
re
s
jIa
X
s
V
t
Ia

R
a
jIa
X
l
jIa
X

6hasor diagram of a cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator,

for the case of lagging power factor
Lagging 634 7Vt787Ef7 for overexcited condition
Leading 634 7Vt797Ef7 for underexcited
condition
Three-phase e,uivalent circuit of a cylindrical-rotor
synchronous machine
0he voltages and currents of the three phases are (+&o apart in
angle, but otherwise the three phases are identical/
+
Ia1
Ef1
jXs Ra
+
I
a
2
E
f
2

j
X
s
R
a
+
I
a
3
E
f
3
j
X
s
R
a
+
VL-L
VL-L =3Vt
Vt
1etermination of the parameters of the e,uivalent
circuit from test data

0he e2uivalent circuit of a synchronous generator that has been

derived contains three 2uantities that must be determined in order
to completely describe the behaviour of a real synchronous
generator4

0he saturation characteristic4 relationship between If and (and

therefore between If and Ef)

0he synchronous reactance, Xs

0he armature resistance, Ra

0he above three 2uantities could be determined by performing the

following three tests4

:pen-circuit test

Short-circuit test

*; test
2pen-circuit test

0he generator is turned at the rated speed

0he terminals are disconnected from all loads, and the field current
is set to <ero/

0hen the field current is gradually increased in steps, and the

terminal voltage is measured at each step along the way/

It is thus possible to obtain an open-circuit characteristic of a

generator (Ef or Vt versus If) from this information


+
Vdc
If
Vt
Short-circuit test

.d=ust the field current to <ero and short-circuit the terminals of

the generator through a set of ammeters/

!ecord the armature current Isc as the field current is increased/

Such a plot is called short-circuit characteristic/

+
Vdc
If
Isc

then

If the stator is >-connected, the per phase stator resistance is

If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase stator resistance is

1C Test

0he purpose of the *; test is to determine Ra/ . variable *; voltage

source is connected between two stator terminals/

0he *; source is ad=usted to provide approximately rated stator current,

and the resistance between the two stator leads is determined from the
voltmeter and ammeter readings
DC
DC
DC
V
R
I

+
DC
a
R
R
DC a
R R
+
$

1etermination of Xs

3or a particular field current IfA, the internal voltage Ef (?VA) could
be found from the occ and the short-circuit current flow Isc,A could
be found from the scc/

0hen the synchronous reactance Xs could be obtained using

IfA
Ef or Vt !V"
ir#ga$ line
%C
C
Isc !"
SC
C
If !"
Vrate
d
VA
Isc,B
Isc, A
IfB
4 Ra is known from the *; test/
Since Xs,unsat99Ra,
( )
scA
f A
unsat , s a unsat , s
I
E V
X R Z

+
+ +
+ +
a unsat , s unsat , s
R Z X
scA
oc , t
scA
f
unsat , s
I
V
I
E
X
Xs under saturated condition
Ia
Ef
Vt&'
jXs
Ra
+
+
Ef
Vt&'
jIaX
s
IaR
a
Ia
t V &
Vrated(
) Ra is kno*n from the +C test,
3,uivalent circuit and phasor diagram under condition
IfA
Ef or Vt !V"
ir#ga$ line
%C
C
Isc !"
SC
C
If !"
Vrate
d
V
A
Isc,B
Isc, A
IfB
( )
sc
f rate!
sat , s a sat , s
I
E V
X R Z

+
+ +
+ +
a sat , s sat , s
R Z X
Short-circuit Ratio
.nother parameter used to describe synchronous generators is the
short-circuit ratio (SCR)/ 0he S;! of a generator defined as the ratio
of the fiel! current re"uire! for the rate! voltage at o#en circuit to
the fiel! current re"uire! for the rate! armature current at short
circuit/ SCR is =ust the reciprocal of the per unit value of the saturated
synchronous reactance calculated by
Ef or Vt !V"
ir#ga$ line
%C
C
Isc !"
SC
C
If !"
Vrate
d
Isc,rat
ed
If_V
rated
If_Isc
rated
[ ] $ u $ # in X
I
I
SCR
sat % s
Iscrate! % f
Vrate! % f
(

3xample "
. +&& k-., @)&--, %&-#<, @-pole, >-;onnected synchronous
generator with a rated field current of A . was tested and the
following data was taken/
a) from :; test B terminal voltage ? A@& - at rated field
current
b) from S; test B line current ? $&&. at rated field current
c) from *c test B *; voltage of (& - applied to two terminals,
a current of +A . was measured/
(/ ;alculate the speed of rotation in r'min
+/ ;alculate the generated emf and saturated e2uivalent circuit
parameters (armature resistance and synchronous reactance)
Solution to 3xample "
(/
fe & electrical fre2uency & Pnm'(+&
fe & %&#<
P & number of poles & @
nm & mechanical speed of rotation in r'min$
So, speed of rotation nm & (+& fe ' P
& ((+& x %&)'@ & ()&& r'min
+/ In open-circuit test, Ia ? & and Ef ?Vt
Ef & A@&'(/C$+
? $((/) - (as the machine is >-connected)
In short-circuit test, terminals are shorted, Vt ? &
Ef & IaZs or Zs ? Ef 'Ia ?$((/)'$&&?(/&@ ohm
3rom the *; test, Ra&VDC'(+IDC)
? (&'(+D+A) ? &/+ ohm
Synchronous reactance
Ia
Ef
Vt
j-,'.
',.
+
+
+
,
+
, sat s a sat s
X R Z +
&+ / ( + / & &@ / (
+ + + +
, ,

a sat s sat s
R Z X
.ro$lem "
. @)&--, %&-#<, >-;onnected synchronous generator, having
the synchronous reactance of (/&@ ohm and negligible armature
resistance, is operating alone/ 0he terminal voltage at rated field
current at open circuit condition is @)&-/
(/ ;alculate the voltage regulation
+/ If load current is (&&. at &/) 63 lagging
$/ If load current is (&&. at &/) 63 leading
@/ If load current is (&&. at unity 63
A/ ;alculate the real and reactive power delivered in each case/
%/ State and explain whether the voltage regulation will
improve or not if the load current is decreased to A& . from
(&& . at &/) 63 lagging/
.arallel operation of synchronous generators
0here are several ma=or advantages to operate generators in
parallel4

Several generators can supply a bigger load than one machine

by itself/

#aving many generators increases the reliability of the power

system/

It allows one or more generators to be removed for shutdown

or preventive maintenance/
Eefore connecting a generator in parallel with another
generator, it must be synchroni<ed/ . generator is said to be
synchroni<ed when it meets all the following conditions4

0he rms line voltages of the two generators must be

e2ual/

0he two generators must have the same #hase se"uence/

0he #hase angles of the two a phases must be e2ual/

0he oncoming generator fre"uency is e2ual to the

running system fre2uency/
Synchroniation
/oad
0enerator .
0enerator -
S*itch
a
b
c
a/
b/
c/
Synchroniation
/oad
0enerat
or
1est of the
$o*er system
0enerato
r
Xs1
Ef1
Xs2
Ef2
Xsn
Efn
Infinite bus
V( f are
constant
Xs eq & '
0
Concept of the infinite $us
1hen a synchronous generator is connected to a power system,
the power system is often so large that nothing the operator of the
generator does will have much of an effect on the power system/
.n example of this situation is the connection of a single
generator to the ;anadian power grid/ :ur ;anadian power grid
is so large that no reasonable action on the part of one generator
can cause an observable change in overall grid fre2uency/ 0his
idea is ideali<ed in the concept of an infinite bus/ An infinite (us
is a #o)er system so large that its voltage an! fre"uency !o not
vary regar!less of ho) much real or reactive #o)er is !ra)n
from or su##lie! to it$
+ctive and reactive power-angle characteristics

P9&4 generator operation

P8&4 motor operation

6ositive *4 delivering inductive vars for a generator action or

receiving inductive vars for a motor action

"egaive *4 delivering capacitive vars for a generator action or

receiving capacitive vars for a motor action
P
Pe( !e
Vt
3ig/ Synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus/
+ctive and reactive power-angle characteristics

0he real and reactive power delivered by a synchronous

generator or consumed by a synchronous motor can be
expressed in terms of the terminal voltage Vt, generated
voltage Ef, synchronous impedance Zs, and the power angle or
tor2ue angle /

!eferring to 3ig/ ), it is convenient to adopt a convention that

makes positive real power 6 and positive reactive power F
delivered by an overe+cite! generator/

0he generator action corresponds to positive value of , while

the motor action corresponds to negative value of /
P

Pe(
!e
Vt
0he complex power output of the generator in volt-
amperes per phase is given by

where4
Vt ? terminal voltage per phase
IaG ? complex con=ugate of the armature current per phase
0aking the terminal voltage as reference
the excitation or the generated voltage,
+ctive and reactive power-angle characteristics
P

Pe(
!e
Vt
G
a
t
H
I - =F 6 S +
& , V V
t
t
%
+
( ) + sin , cos E E
f
f
%
+ctive and reactive power-angle characteristics
P

Pe(
!e
Vt
and the armature current(
*here Xs is the synchronous reactance $er $hase,
( )
s
f t f
s
t
%
f
%
a
%
,X
sin ,E V cos E
,X
V E
I
+

( )
s
t f t
s
f t
s
t f t
s
f t
s
f t f
t
-
a
%
t
%
X
V cos E V
*
.
X
sin E V
P
X
V cos E V
,
X
sin E V
,X
sin ,E V cos E
V I V ,* P S
+
+

1
1
]
1

+
+ctive and reactive power-angle characteristics
P

Pe(
!e
Vt

0he above two e2uations for active and reactive powers hold
good for cylindrical-rotor synchronous machines for negligible
resistance

0o obtain the total power for a three-phase generator, the above

e2uations should be multiplied by $ when the voltages are line-to-
neutral

If the line-to-line magnitudes are used for the voltages, however,

these e2uations give the total three-phase power
s
t f t
s
f t
X
V cos E V
* .
X
sin E V
P
+

Steady-state power-angle or tor,ue-angle characteristic of a
cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine %with negligi$le
armature resistance)#
+
1eal $o*er or tor2ue
generato
r
motor
+
+/2
/2
0

3ull#out
tor2ue as a
generator
3ull#out
tor2ue as a
motor

Steady-state sta$ility limit

0otal three-phase power4
0he above e2uation shows that the power produced by a synchronous
generator depends on the angle between the Vt and Ef/ 0he maximum
power that the generator can supply occurs when ?I&o/
0he maximum power indicated by this e2uation is called stea!y/state
sta(ility limit of the generator/ If we try to exceed this limit (such as by
admitting more steam to the turbine), the rotor will accelerate and lose
synchronism with the infinite bus/ In practice, this condition is never reached
because the circuit breakers trip as soon as synchronism is lost/ 1e have to
resynchroni<e the generator before it can again pick up the load/ "ormally,
real generators never even come close to the limit/ 3ull-load tor2ue angle of
(Ao to +&o are more typical of real machines/
sin
X
E V
P
s
f t
$
s
f t
X
E V
P
$

.ull-out tor,ue
0he maximum tor2ue or #ull/out tor"ue per phase that a two-pole
round-rotor synchronous motor can develop is
where ns is the synchronous speed of the motor in rpm
P

P or !
!
3ig/ .ctive and reactive power as a function of the internal angle

,
_

%&
+
s
ma+
m
ma+
ma+
n
P P
0
.ro$lem *
. +&)--, @A-k-., &/)-63 leading, -connected, %&-#<
synchronous machine having (/&@ ohm synchronous reactance
and negligible armature resistance is supplying a load of (+ k1
at &/) power factor leading/ 3ind the armature current and
generated voltage and power factor if the load is increased to +&
J1/ "eglect all other losses/
4xam$le 5#. !$$.6-"
. @)& -, %& #<, -connected, four pole synchronous generator has the :;;
shown below/ 0his generator has a synchronous reactance of &/( ohm and
armature resistance of &/&(A ohm/ .t full load, the machine supplies (+&& .
and &/) pf lagging/ nder full-load conditions, the friction and windage
losses are @& k1, and the core losses are $& k1/ Ignore field circuit losses/
a) 1hat is the speed of rotation of the generatorK
b) #ow much field current must be supplied to the generator to make the
terminal voltage @)& - at no loadK
c) If the generator is now connected to a load and the load draws (+&& . at &/)
pf lagging, how much field current will be re2uired to keep the terminal
voltage e2ual to @)& -K
d) #ow much power is the generator now supplyingK #ow much power is
supplied to the generator by the prime-moverK
1hat is the machineLs overall efficiencyK
e) If the generatorLs load were suddenly disconnected
from the line, what would happen to its terminal voltageK
'
-''
.''
7''
8''
5''
9''
' . 8 9 : -'
Synchronous Motors

. synchronous motor is the same physical machine as a

generator, except that the direction of real power flow is
reversed

Synchronous motors are used to convert electric power to

mechanical power

,ost synchronous motors are rated between (A& k1 (+&&

hp) and (A ,1 (+&,&&& hp) and turn at speed ranging from
(A& to ()&& r'min/ ;onse2uently, these machines are used in
heavy industry

.t the other end of the power spectrum, we find tiny single-

phase synchronous motors used in control devices and
electric clocks
P( !
Vt
Motor
2peration .rinciple

0he field current of a synchronous motor produces a steady-

state magnetic field R

. three-phase set of voltages is applied to the stator windings of

the motor, which produces a three-phase current flow in the
windings/ 0his three-phase set of currents in the armature
winding produces a uniform rotating magnetic field of s

0herefore, there are two magnetic fields present in the machine,

and the rotor fiel! )ill ten! to line u# )ith the stator fiel!, =ust
as two bar magnets will tend to line up if placed near each other/

Since the stator magnetic field is rotating, the rotor magnetic

field (and the rotor itself) will try to catch up

0he larger the angle between the two magnetic fields (up to
certain maximum), the greater the tor2ue on the rotor of the
machine
!ector 1iagram

0he e2uivalent circuit of a synchronous motor is exactly same as

the e2uivalent circuit of a synchronous generator, except that the
reference direction of Ia is reversed/

0he basic difference between motor and generator operation in

synchronous machines can be seen either in the magnetic field
diagram or in the phasor diagram/

In a generator, Ef lies ahead of Vt, and R lies ahead of net/ In a

motor, Ef lies behind Vt, and R lies behind net/

In a motor the induced tor2ue is in the direction of motion, and in a

generator the induced tor2ue is a countertor2ue opposing the
direction of motion
!ector 1iagram

Ia
Vt
Ef
jIa Xs

Ia
Vt
Ef
jIa Xs

Bs
Bnet
BR

3ig/ 0he phasor diagram (leading 634 overexcited and 7Vt787Ef7) and
the corresponding magnetic field diagram of a synchronous motor/
3ig/ 0he phasor diagram of an underexcited synchronous
motor (lagging 63 and 7Vt797Ef7)/
+pplication of Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors are usually used in large si<es because in small
si<es they are costlier as compared with induction machines/ 0he principal
advantages of using synchronous machine are as follows4

6ower factor of synchronous machine can be controlled very easily

by controlling the field current/

It has very high operating efficiency and constant speed/

3or operating speed less than about A&& rpm and for high-power
re2uirements (above %&&J1) synchronous motor is cheaper than
induction motor/
In view of these advantages, synchronous motors are preferred for
driving the loads re2uiring high power at low speedM e/gM reciprocating
pumps and compressor, crushers, rolling mills, pulp grinders etc/
.ro$lem &-** %pp#393)
. (&&-,-., (+/A-k-, &/)A power lagging, A& #<, two-
pole, >-connected, synchronous generator has a pu
synchronous reactance of (/( and pu armature resistance
of &/&(+/
a) 1hat are its synchronous reactance and armature
resistance in ohmsK
b) 1hat is the magnitude of the internal voltage Ef at the
rated conditionsK 1hat is its load angle at these
conditionsK
c) Ignoring losses in the generator, what tor2ue must be
applied to its shaft by the prime-mover at full loadK
.ro$lem &-*3 %pp#393)
. three-phase, >-connected synchronous generator is
rated (+& ,-., ($/+ k-, &/) power lagging, and %& #</
Its synchronous reactance is &/I ohm and its armature
resistance may be ignored/
a) 1hat is its voltage regulation at rated loadK
b) 1hat would the voltage and apparent power rating of this
generator be if it were operated at A& #< with the same
armature and field losses as it had at %& #<K
c) 1hat would the voltage regulation of the generator be at
A& #<K