Measuring Instrument : instrument that shows the amount or quantity or degree of something.

Classification of Measuring Instruments according to use : (i) Galvanometer (ii) Ammeter (iii) Voltmeter (iv) Watt meter (v) Energy Meter (vi) Ohm Meter (vii) Megger (viii) Avometer (ix) Maximum Demand Indicator (x) P.F Meter (xi) Frequency Meter

According to Characteristics: (A) Absolute Instrument (B) Secondary Instrument (A) Absolute Instrument : The instrument which give the value of quantity to be measured in terms of deflection and instrument constants. Ex tangent galvanometer.

In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other instruments is necessary. They are mostly used as means of standard measurements and are maintained lay national laboratories and similar institutions.

Some of the examples of absolute instruments are: * Tangent galvanometer * Raleigh current balance * Absolute electrometer.

(B) Secondary Instrument : The instrument which measures an electrical quantity on a calibrated scale is termed as secondary instrument. Most of the measuring instruments which are generally used are secondary instruments

They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute instruments or with those which have already been calibrated.

Secondary instruments are further classified as: Indicating instruments Recording instruments Integrating instruments Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be measured by means of a pointer which moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc. Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously the variation of any electrical quantity with respect to time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or dial. The recording is generally made by a pen on a graph paper which is rotated on a dice or drum at a uniform speed.

The amount of the quantity at any time (instant) may be read from the traced chart. Any electrical quantity like current, voltage, power etc., (which may be measured lay the indicating instruments) may be arranged to be recorded by a suitable recording mechanism. Ex-Recording voltmeter, Ammeter, p.F meters

 Integrating : These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of time. That is, these instruments totalize events over a specified period of time. No indication of the rate or variation or the amount at a particular instant are available from them. Some widely used integrating instruments are: Ampere-hour meter: kilowatt hour (kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh) meter

According to Working Principle:

1.Electromagnetic Instrument: Moving coil and moving iron instruments belong to this category. 2.Electro dynamic Instrument: 3.Electro thermal Instrument: 4.Electro induction Instrument: 5.Electrochemical Instrument: 6.Electrostatic Instrument:

Dynamo type ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter belong to this category. Hot wire ammeter and thermocouple meters belong to this category. Watt meters and energy meters belong to this category. D.C. ampere-hour meter and watt-hour meters belong to this category. Certain voltmeters belong to this category.

FORCES ACTING IN AN INSTRUMENT Following forces are necessary for working of an instrument 1.Deflecting force 2.Controlling force 3.Damping force.

Deflecting force:

The force acting on the moving system of an instrument produce a torque which moves the moving system, is called deflecting force or deflecting torque.
The deflection of the pointer is proportional to the deflecting torque, and which itself is proportional to the current passed through the instrument. Controlling Force: This force opposes the action of deflecting force, and the pointer will rest in a position where the two force will neutralize each other. The controlling force stops the pointer to move beyond the actual value of electrical quantity under measurement. It also brings the pointer back to zero position after disconnecting the meter from the circuit. Thus no indicating instrument can work without a controlling force.

The controlling force can be developed in the following two ways: 1.Spring control : 2.Gravity control : 1.Spring Control : The spindle of the moving system rests on two pivots. A hair spring made of phosphor bronze wire is attached to the spindle.

. The spring is wound in a direction which is opposite to the rotation of pointer. .Under the influence of deflecting force, when the pointer moves, then the spring gets twisted in the opposite direction. .As the deflecting force becomes zero, the twist of the spring brings back the pointer to its zero position. A spring used in instruments should have the following characteristics: (i)It should be non-magnetic (ii)It should have a low resistance (iii)It should have a low temperature coefficient.

Materials used for spring Phoshporous Bronze, Berillyum Copper

Advantages of Spring Control :

Gravity Control: In this system, the pointer should rotate in a vertical plane.

The control is obtained by attaching a control weight to the pointer in such a way that it produces a controlling torque because of change in its position, A balance weight is also attached to the pointer. Both the weights should be adjustable. The controlling torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of deflection and hence the scale will not be a uniform scale.

Advantages: (i) The system is cheap (ii) It is not affected by change in temperature (iii) Its working life is long enough (iv) It requires very little maintenance and that too is inexpensive.

Disadvantages: (i) The instrument has to be kept in vertical position (ii) The scale is cramped and non-uniform (iii) The instrument has to be installed in ground level. Damping Force: The pointer of an instrument does not become stationary in the deflected position, but it remains oscillating about its final deflection position for some time.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to use a suitable damping device to stop the oscillations of pointer quickly. The instrument provides with a damping system is known as dead beat type instrument.

The various methods adopted for damping are: 1.Air friction damping 2.Fluid friction damping 3.Eddy current damping

1.Air Friction Damping:

In air friction damping a light aluminum piston is attached to the moving part of the instrument. The piston moves in an air chamber which is closed at its one end. It will have a small clearance with the air chamber. The system works on the compression and suction of the air. Now days, two aluminum vanes are attached to the moving part, which rotate in sector shaped air-chambers.

Fluid Friction Damping:

This system is similar to the air friction damping, but it employs a liquid in place of air. The liquid should have a high viscosity so as to produce sufficient damping force.

The system is not suitable for portable instruments, hence it is out dated now.

Eddy Current Damping:

In this system, a circular thin disc of copper or aluminum is mounted on the spindle. A damping magnet is placed on side of the disc.

The magnet is place in such a way that the rotating disc will cut the magnetic lines of force of the magnet.
Thus, eddy currents will be induced in the disc which will oppose its motion, and thus a damping force is produced in the instrument.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Meter

A coil of fine wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by permanent magnet.

According to the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic field when it carries an electric current by electromagnetic (EM) torque effect. A pointer which attached the movable coil will deflect according to the amount of current to be measured which applied to the coil.

 Uniform

scale.

Eddy
No

current damping, so very effective & reliable.

hysteresis loss.

Low
No

power consumption as the driving power is small.

effect of stray magnetic field.

High
Very The

torque/weight ratio, require small operating current.

accurate & reliable.

scale covered upto 270 degree.

 Can

not be used for AC measurement. in comparison to moving iron instruments.

Costlier

Friction

& temperature might introduce some error.

Errors

due to ageing of control springs & permanent magnets.

1- D.c Ammeter:

An Ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit branch and measures the current flowing in it.

Extension of Ammeter Range: Since the coil winding in PMMC meter is small and light, they can carry only small currents (A-1mA). Measurement of large current requires a shunt external resistor to connect with the meter movement, so only a fraction of the total current will passes through the meter. Vsh = Vm IshRsh= ImRm

Rsh

Im Rm Ish

But Ish = IT Im

Rsh

Im Rm

IT Im

Example: If PMMC meter have internal resistance of 10 and full scale range of 1mA. Assume we wish to increase the meter range to 1A. we must connect shunt resistance with the PMMC meter of Rsh

Rsh

Im Rm I T Im

Example 1:- A moving coil ammeter has a full scale deflection of 50 Amp and a coil resistance of 1000 . What will be the value of the shunt resistance required for the instrument to be converted to read a full scale reading of 1 Amp. 0.05
Example 2 :- The full scale deflection current of an ammeter is 1 mA and its internal resistance is 100 . If this meter is to have scale deflection at 5 A, what is the value of shunt resistance to be used. R sh = 0.020004 ohm

VOLTMETER

Example Convert a 50 micro A, 3k PMMC into a 0-10VDC voltmeter.

The voltmeter looks like this:

A PMMC meter with a coil resistance 100 and a full scale deflection current of 100A is to be used in the voltmeter circuit as shown in Fig.42.6. The voltmeter ranges are to be 50. Determine the required value of resistances for each range. (i) For 50V - 0.. 4999M (ii) For 100V - 0.9999M (iii)For 150V - 1.4999M

A moving coil ammeter gives full scale deflection with 15 mA and has a resistance of 5 . Calculate the resistance to be connected in (a) Parallel to enable the instrument to read upto 1 A (b) Series to enable it to read up to 10 V.
Rsh = 0.07614 Rse = 661.6667

Moving-iron Instruments
The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a small piece of magnetically soft iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying the operating current. (i) Attraction Type (ii) Repulsion Type

REPULSION TYPE

Repulsive forces will act when two similarly magnetized iron pieces are placed near to each other.

Terms used : Sensitivity: It is defined by the change in the output or response of the instrument for a unit change of input or measured variable. Resolution: Resolution is the smallest change in a measured variable (or measurand ) to which the instrument will respond. Error: It is the deviation of the measured (or indicated) value from the true (or expected) value of a quantity. In other words, error is the difference between the measured value and the true value of the unknown quantity. It is also called absolute error are maximum possible error. A = Am At where Am = measured value of the quantity

At = true value of the quantity