SOFTWARE PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Satheesh Kumar

SOFTWARE PROJECT Based on the text book MANAGEMENT

SOFTWARE PROJECT MANAGEMENT

FOURTH EDITION Bob Hughes and Mike Cotterell

MODULE 1
Introduction to SPM Stepwise overview of project planning Program management and project evaluation

What is a Project?

A planned activity
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service or result

What is Project Management?

Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and technique to project activities to meet project requirements

Project managers must not only strive to meet specific scope ,time, cost and quality goals of projects ,they must also facilitate the entire

process to meet the needs and expectations of

the people involved in or affected by project activities.

Benefits of project management

Better control of financial, physical and human resource. Improved customer relations Shorter development times Lower costs Higher quality and increased reliability Higher profit management Improved productivity Better employee satisfaction Better internal co-ordination

The characteristics of Projects

Non- routine tasks are involved Planning is required Specific objectives are to be met Has a predetermined time span Work is carried out for someone other than yourself Work involves several specialisms Work is carried out in several phases The resources are constrained The project is large or complex

S/W Project Vs Other Projects

Invisibility Process of making visible that which is invisible Complexity Per dollar spent software products contain more complexity Conformity S/W developers have to conform to the requirements of human clients.Humans and organizations can be in consistent. Flexibility Subject to a high degree of change

Activities Covered By SPM

Usually there are three successive processes that bring a new system into

being.

The feasibility study

Whether it has a valid business case

Planning

Formulate an outline plan for the whole project

Project execution

Design and implementation sub-phases

Boundary between design and planning can be hazy

Categorization of s/w projects

Information systems versus embedded systems

Interfaces with the organization / machine.

Objectives versus products

Can be distinguished by whether their aim is to produce or to meet certain objectives.

Client has the responsibility of justifying the product

A new information system might be implemented to improve

some service to users.

Stakeholders

These are the people who have a stake or interest in the project. It is important that they may be identified as early as possible.

Internal to the project team External to the project team but within the orgnzn External to both the project team and the organization.
Boem

and Ross - Theory W.

Stepwise overview of project planning

0-Select Project 2-Identify pro: infrastructure 3.Analyse Project Characteristics

1.Identify project scope and objectives

4.Identify the products and activities

Review
5.Estimate effort for each activity

For each activity

6.Identify activity risks 10.Lower level planning 7.Allocate Resources

9.Execute Plan

8.Review/publicize plan

The Two Case Studies

Brightmouth College Payroll Brigette Off-the shelf Package Refer Exercise 1.2 & Page 21

I.O.E Group Maintenance Accounts Amanda Extension of Invoicing system Refer Page 21

Step wise project planning Activities

0-Select Project 1-Identify project scope and objectives

Identify

objectives and measures of effectiveness in meeting them Establish a project authority Identify stakeholders Modify objectives in the light of stakeholder analysis Establish methods of communications with all parties
Refer case Study Examples on pages 24 and 25

2-Identify Project Infrastructure

Identify

relationship between project and strategic planning Identify installation standards and procedures Identify project team organization
Refer Case Studies on pages 26,27,28

3-Analyze project characteristics

Distinguish

the project as either objective or product

driven Analyze other project characteristics Identify high-level project risks Take into account user requirements concerning implementation Select general life cycle approach Review overall resource estimates
Refer Case Study on page 29

4-Identify project products and activities

Identify

and describe project products Document generic product flows Recognize product instances Produce ideal activity network Modify ideal to take into account need for stages and checkpoints
Refer

Figures 2.2 ,2.4,2.5 Refer Case Studies on page 31,32,33

5 Estimate Effort for each activity

out bottom up estimates Revise plan to create controllable activities

Carry
Refer

Case Study on page 35

6-Identify Activity Risks

Identify

and quantify activity-based risks Plan risk reduction and contingency measures where appropriate Adjust plans and estimates to take account of risks Refer Case Study on page 36

7-Allocate Resources
Identify

and allocate resources Revise plans and estimates to take account of resource constraints. Refer Case Study on page 37 Refer Figure 2.6 Gantt Chart

8-Review/Publicize Plan
Review

quality aspects of project plan Document plans and obtain agreement

Refer

Case Study on page 38

9/10-Execute plan /lower levels of planning

This

may require the reiteration of the planning process at a lower level.

Refer Case Study on page 39

Programme Management

Program is a Group of projects that are managed in a co-ordinated way to gain benefits that would not be possible were the projects to be managed independently

Programme manager Vs Project Managers

Programme Manager Many simultaneous projects Personal Relationship with skilled resources Need to maximise utilization of resources Projects tend to be similar Project Manager One project at a time Impersonal relationship with resource type Need to minimize the demand for resources Projects tend to be dissimilar

Important Terminologies

A cash flow forecast will indicate when expenditure and income will take place.

Net Profit of a project is the difference between the total costs and the total income over the life of the project.

Payback period is the time taken to break even or pay back the initial investment.

Normally ,the project with the shortest payback period will be chosen on
the basis that an organization will wish to minimize the time that a project is in dept

Project Cash Flow Projections(in $)

Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 Net Profit Project 1 -100,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 20,000 100,000 50,000 Project 2 -1,000,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 300,000 100,000 Project 3 -100,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 50,000 Project 4 -120,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 75,000 75,000

Return On Investment

ROI provides a way of comparing the net profitability to the investment required. ROI = average annual profit * 100
total investment

Exercise:
For project 1,the net profit is $50,000 and the total investment is $100,000.Calculate the ROI.

It takes no account of the timing of the cash flows Bears no relationship to the interest rates offered or charged by banks.

Net present Value

NPV is a project evaluation technique that takes into account the profitability of a project and the timing of the cash flows. This is based on the view that receiving $100 today is better than having to wait until next year to receive it ,because $100 next year is worth less than $100 now. If say that the present value of $100 in a years time is $91, that means the $100 in a years time is the equivalent of $91 now.

Calculating the present value of future cash flow

Present value = value in year t (1+r) t r - the discount rate t - the number of years into the future, the cash flow occurs Alternatively the present value of a cash flow may be calculated by multiplying the cash flow by the appropriate discount factor.

NPV Discount Factors

Year 5% 6% 8% 10%

1
2 3 4 5

0.9254
0.9070 0.8638 0.8227 0.7835

0.9434
.8900 .8396 .7921 .7473

0.9259
0.8573 0.7938 0.7350 0.6806

0.9091
0.8264 0.7513 0.6830 0.6209

NPV for a project is obtained by discounting each cash flow and summing the discounted values.

It is assumed that any initial investment takes place immediately and is not discounted

Exercise:

Assuming a 10% discount rate, calculate the NPV for project1 . Using a 10% discount rate, calculate the NPVs for project2,3 and 4 and decide which on the basis of this ,is the most beneficial to pursue.

Applying the discount factors to Project 1

Year 0 1 2 3 Project 1 Cash Flow($) -100,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 Discount Factor @10 % 1.000 0.9091 0.8264 0.7513 Discounted cash flow($) -100,000 9,091 8,264 7,513

4
5

20,000
100,000

0.6830
0.6209

13,660
62,090

Net Profit

$50,000

NPV : $618

Internal rate of return

One disadvantage of NPV as a measure of profitability is that ,although it may be used to compare projects, it might not be directly comparable with earnings from other investments or the costs of borrowing capital.

The internal rate of return attempts to provide a profitability measure as a percentage return that is directly comparable with interest rate.

Thus a project that showed an estimated IRR of 10% would be worthwhile

if the capital could be borrowed for less than 10% or if the capital could
not be invested elsewhere for a return greater than 10%

Calculating the IRR

The IRR is calculated as that percentage discount rate that would produce an NPV

of zero.

It is most easily calculated using a spreadsheet ,like MS Excel ,provides IRR functions which provided with initial guess ,will return an IRR.

IRR may be estimated by plotting a series of guesses. Exercise: A discount rate of 8% gives a NPV of $7,898,a discount rate of 12% gives ve

NPV of $-5,829.The IRR therefore lies somewhere between these two values. Plot
a chart and find out the approximate IRR.

Estimating IRR for Project 1

10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 -2,000 -4,000 -6,000 -8,000 -5,829 10.25 7,898

12

Investing in a project that has an IRR of 10% can produce exactly the same cash flow as lending the money to a bank at a 10% interest rate.

A project with IRR greater than current interest rates

will provide better rate than lending the investment to a

bank.

Risk Evaluation

Every project involves risks of some form. When assessing and planning a project, we are concerned with the risk that the project might not meet its objectives.

In this section we are concerned with taking risk into account

when deciding whether to proceed with a proposed project.

Risk identification and ranking

One common approach to risk analysis is to construct a project risk matrix utilizing a checklist of possible risks and to classify each risk according to its relative importance and likelihood.

The importance and likelihood need to be separately assessed.

We might be less concerned with something that, although serious

,is very unlikely to occur than with something less serious that is
almost certain.

Project Risk Matrix

Risk Software never completed or delivered Project cancelled after design stage Software delivered late Development budget exceeded 20% Development budget exceeded 20% Maintenance costs higher than estimated Importance H H M L M L Likelihood _ _ M M L L

Response time targets not met

Risk and net present value

Where a project is relatively risky it is common practice to use a higher discount rate to calculate net present value.

This risk Premium ,might, for example, be an additional 2%

for a reasonably safe project or 5% for a fairly risky one.

The premiums ,even if arbitrary, provide a consistent method of taking risk into account.

Cost benefit analysis

A more sophisticated approach to the risk evaluation is to consider

each possible outcome and estimate the probability of its occurring

and the corresponding value of the outcome.

Rather than a single cash flow forecast for a project, we will then have a set of cash flow forecasts, each with an associated probability of occurring.

The value of the project is then obtained by summing the cost or benefit for each possible outcome weighted by its corresponding probability.

Case Study

Buyright , a software house ,is considering developing a payroll application for use in academic institutions and is currently engaged in a cost-benefit analysis. Study of the market has shown that, if they can target it efficiently and no competing products become available, they will obtain a high level of sales generating an annual income of $ 80,000.They

estimate that there is a 1 in 10 chance of this happening.

Case Study

However ,a competitor might launch a competing application before their own launch date and then sales might generate only $100,000 per year. They estimate that there is a 30% chance of this happening. The most likely outcome, they believe ,is somewhere in between these two extremes-they will gain a market lead by launching before any competing

product becomes available and achieve an annual income of

$650,000.

BuyRights income forecast

Sales Annual Sales income ($) i Probability Expected Value ($) i*p

800,000

0.1

80,000

HIGH
MEDIUM 650,000 0.6 390,000

LOW

100,000

0.3

30,000

EXPECTED INCOME

500,000

The Disadvantage

When used to evaluate single major

project, the cost-

benefit approach, by averaging out the negative and positive outcomes of the different scenarious,does not take

into account of the full force of damaging outcomes.

Because of this ,it is often more appropriate

for the

evaluation of a portfolio of projects where more successful projects can offset the impact of less successful ones.

Risk Profile Analysis

Construction of risk profiles using sensitivity analysis. This involves varying each of the parameters that

affect the projects cost or benefits to ascertain how

sensitive the projects profitability is to each factor.

By studying the results of a sensitivity analysis we can identify those factors that are most important to the success of the project.

Sensitivity analysis demands that we vary each factor one at a time.

It does not allow us to consider the effects of combinations of

circumstances, neither does it evaluate the chances of a particular outcome occurring.

In order to do this we need to use a tool such as Monte Carlo Simulation.

A risk analysis application can make use of this data and produce risk profiles (refer Figure 3.7 in the book)

Using Decision Trees

In the earlier approaches , the best what we can do is,reject over risky projects or choose those with the best risk profile.

But in many situations we can evaluate whether a risk is important and if it is , indicate a suitable course of action.

Such decisions will limit or affect future options and ,at any point ,it is important to be able to assess how a decision will

affect the future profitability of the project.

Refer Case study (page :64 (IOE))

A Decision Tree
Expansion 0.2 Extend 0.8 D Replace 0.2 0.8 No Expansion -50,000 75,000 NPV $ 100,000

250,000

Analysis of a decision tree

It consists of evaluating the expected benefit of taking each path from a

decision point.(D)

The expected value of each path is the sum of the value of each possible outcome ,multiplied by its probability of occurrence.

The expected value of extending the system is therefore $40,000

(75,000*.8-100,000*.2).

The expected value of replacing the system is $10,000

(250,000*.2 50,000 *.8).

Therefore IOE should extend the existing system.

MODULE II
PROCESS MODELS EFFORT ESTIMATION

Process Models

The word process is used to emphasize the idea of a system in action. In order to achieve an outcome, the system will have to execute one or more activities :this is its process. These activities can be organized in different ways and we can call them process models.

The water fall model

Also called as one shot or once through model.

There is a sequence of activities working from top to bottom.

The diagram shows some arrows pointing upwards and backwards. This indicates that a later stage may reveal the need for some extra work at an earlier stage, but this should definitely be the exception rather than a rule.

The limited scope for iteration is in fact the strength of the model. With a large project one want to avoid reworking tasks previously thought to be completed and thus slipping the dead lines.

The V Process Model

Working

This is an elaboration of the waterfall model and stresses the necessity for validation activities .

Each step has a matching validation process which can, where defects are found ,cause a loop back to corresponding development stage and a reworking of the following steps.

Ideally this feeding back should only occur where a discrepancy

has been found between what was specified by a particular activity

and what was actually implemented in the next lower activity.

The Spiral Model

Characteristics

In the waterfall model, it is possible to escape at the end of any activity in the sequence.

A greater level of detail is considered at each stage of the

project and a greater degree of confidence about the

probability of success for the project should be justified .

Software Prototyping

A prototype is the working model of one or more aspects of the projected system. It is constructed and tested quickly and inexpensively in order to test out assumptions. It can be classified as
away prototypes Evolutionary prototypes
Throw

Characteristics

Learning by doing Improved communication Improved user involvement Clarification of partially known requirement Demonstration of the consistency and completeness of a specification. Reduced need for documentation

Draw Backs

Users can misunderstand the role of the prototype Lack of project standards possible Lack of control Additional expense Machine efficiency Close proximity of developers required

Software Effort Estimation

Software effort estimation techniques Albrecht function point analysis Function points Mark II COSMIC full function points Procedural code oriented approach COCOMO model.

Estimation Techniques

Algorithmic Models

Use effort drivers representing characteristics of the target system Advice of knowledgeable staff is solicited Similar, completed ,project is identified and its actual effort is used as the basis of the estimate for the new projects Identifies the staff effort for a project and use that as an estimate Estimate is a figure that appears to be sufficiently low to win a contract Overall estimate for the whole project is made and then broken down Component tasks are identified and sized and these are aggregated.

Expert Judgement

Analogy

Parkinson

Price to win

Top-down

Bottom-up

Bottom up Estimating

With the bottom-up approach the estimator breaks the project into its

component tasks and then estimates how much effort will be required to
carry out each task.

With a large project, the process of breaking down into tasks would be a repetitive one :each task would be analyzed into its component subtasks and these in turn would be further analyzed.

This process is repeated until you get to components that can be executed by a single person for a week or two.

The bottom-up part comes in adding up the calculated effort for each activity to get an overall estimate.

The top-down approach

The

top

down

approach

is

normally

associated

with

parametric(algorithmic) models .

The effort needed to implement a project will be related mainly to variables associated with the characteristics of the final system.

The form of the parametric model will normally be

effort = (system size) * (productivity rate)

Some parametric models ,such as that implied by function points ,are focused on system or task size ,while others ,such as COCOMO,are more concerned with productivity factors.

Albert function point analysis

This is a top-down method that was devised by Allan Albrecht

He needed some way to quantify

they had been coded.

the functional

size of the

programs independently of the programming languages in which

He developed the idea of function points(FPs). The basis of function point analysis is that computer-based information systems comprise five major components, or external user types that are of benefit to the users.

External User Types

External input types Transactions which update internal computer files External output types Data is output to the user.Ex:Printed reports, screen display Logical internal file types

Equate to a data store May pass information to and from other computer applications Initiated by the user which provide information but do not update the internal files.

External interface file types

External inquiry types

Albrecht FP Analysis

The analyst has to identify each instance of each external user type in the projected system.

Each component is then classified as having either high, average or low complexity.

The counts of each external user type in each complexity band are multiplied by specified weights to get the FP

scores which are summed to get an overall FP count which

indicates the information processing size.

Albrecht Complexity Multipliers

External user type Low External Input type External Output Type Logical Internal File Type External Interface file type External Inquiry type 3 4 7 5 3 Multiplier Average 4 5 10 7 4 High 6 7 15 10 6

Function Point Mark II

The Mark II label implies an improvement and replacement of Albrecht method.

The information processing size is initially measured in unadjusted

function points (UFPs) to

which a technical complexity

adjustment(TCA) can then be applied.

The assumption is that an information system comprises transactions which have the basic structure as shown in the figure.

Model of a transaction

Datastore

Input From User Process

Output

Return to the user

Analysis

For each transaction the UFPs are calculated as

Wi
We Wo

*
* *

(number of input data element types )+

(number of entity types referenced) + (number of output data element types)

Wi,We,Wo are effort spent in previous projects

From this it should be possible to work out the average hours of work generated by instances of each type of element.

The averages are then normalized into ratios, or weightings which add up to 2.5 Refer Example 5.3 on page 104

Estimation

If we have figures for the effort expended on past projects and also the system sizes in FPs,we should be able to work out a productivity rate as,
productivity = size /effort

For new projects ,the FPs can be counted and then the effort can be projected using the productivity rate

derived above
effort = size /productivity

Cosmic Full Function Points

The existing FPs suits only for business oriented information systems.

With a real time ,or embedded systems assessing the work content is not easy,
as its features might be well hidden.

COSMIC deals with this by requiring the analyst to break down the system

architecture into a hierarchy of software layers.

The software component to be sized can receive requests for services from layers above and can request services from those below it. Also peer-to-peer

communication between the components is also possible.

This helps to identify the boundary of the software component to be assessed and thus the points at which it receives inputs and transmits output.

Data groups

Inputs and outputs are aggregated into data groups ,where each group brings together data items that relate to the same object of interest.

Data groups can be moved about in four ways:

entries(E) exits(X) reads(R) writes(W)

The overall FFP count is derived by simply adding up the counts for each of the four types of data movement.

The resulting units are cfsu(COSMIC functional size units).

Procedural code-oriented approach

Envisage the number and type of software modules in the final system

Estimate the SLOC of each identified program

Estimate the work content taking into account complexity and

technical difficulty

Calculate the work-days effort.

Assignment

COCOMO MODEL
Submission

Date : Monday (21/Feb/11)

MODULE III

Activity Planning
Objectives Projects and activities, Sequencing and scheduling activities Network planning models Formulating a network model Forward pass, Backward pass, Identifying critical path

The Objectives of A.P

Feasibility Assessment Resource Allocation

Detailed Costing
Motivation Co-ordination

Identifying Activiities

Activity based approach Product based approach Hybrid based apporach

WBS
Project

Analyze

Design

Build

Data Design

Process Design

Physical Design

Relational data analysis

Logical data design

Example Activity durations and precedence Requirements

Activity A B C D E F G H Hardware Selection Software Design Install Hardware Code & Test Software File take-on Write user manuals User Training Install &Test System Duration 6 4 3 4 3 10 3 2 E,F C,D A B B Precedents

Risk Management
Categories Risk identification Assessment Planning Management Applying PERT technique Monte Carlo simulation Critical chain concepts

Risk

PM-BOK defines risk as an uncertain event or condition that ,if it occurs ,has a positive or negative effect on a projects objectives.

The key elements of risk are

It relates to the future It involves cause and effect

Categories of risk

Sociotechnical model
Actors

Structure

Technology

Tasks

Risk Identification

Checklists Brainstorming
Causal

Mapping

Represent

the chains of causes and effects that will influence the outcomes in a particular area of activity.

Risk Assessment
Risk exposure =(potential damage)*(probability of occurrence)

Risk Planning

Risk Acceptance Risk Avoidance Risk reduction and mitigation Risk Transfer

Risk Management

Contingency Deciding on the risk actions Creating and maintaining the risk register

Applying the PERT technique

PERT was developed to take account of the uncertainty surrounding the estimates of task durations.

Most likely time Optimistic time Pessimistic time Single expected time t = a+4m+b
6

PERT Activity Time Estimates

Activity Optimistic (a) 5 3 Most Likely (m) 6 4 Pessimistic (b) 8 5 Expected (t) A B 6.17 4.00

C
D E

2
3.5 1

3
4 3

3
5 4

2.83
4.08 2.83

F
G H

8
2 2

10
3 2

15
4 2.5

10.50
3.00 2.08

Unlike the CPM method the PERT method does not indicate the earliest date by which we could complete the project but the expected (or most likely ) date.

An advantage of this approach is that it places an emphasis on the uncertainty of the real world.

Rather than being tempted to say the completion date for the

project is. we are led to say we expect to complete the

project by

Activity Standard Deviations

A quantitative measure of the degree of uncertainty of an activity duration estimate may be obtained by calculating the S.D s of an activity time ,using the formula. s= (b-a) / 6

Expected times and Standard Deviations

Activity Optimistic (a) A B C D E F G H 5 3 2 3.5 1 8 2 2 Most Likely (m) 6 4 3 4 3 10 3 2 Pessimistic (b) 8 5 3 5 4 15 4 2.5 Expected (t) 6.17 4.00 2.83 4.08 2.83 10.50 3.00 2.08 Standard Deviation (s) 0.50 0.33 0.17 0.25 0.50 1.17 0.33 0.08

Resource Allocation
Identifying resource requirements, Scheduling resources, Creating critical paths, Cost schedule

Identifying resource requirements

First step is to list the resources that will be required along with the expected level of demand . This will be normally done by considering each activity in turn and identifying the resources required.

Scheduling Resources

Having produced the resource requirement list, the next stage is to map this on to the activity plan to assess the distribution of resources required over the duration of

the project.

This is best done by representing the activity plan as a bar chart and using this to produce a resource histogram for each resource.

Bar Chart and Resource Histogram

Resource Histogram Before Smoothing

Creating Critical Paths

Scheduling resources can create new critical paths. Delaying the start of an activity because of lack of resources will cause that activity to become critical if this uses up its float.

Further more , a delay in completing one activity can delay the availability of a resource required for a later activity .

If the later one is already critical then the earlier one might
now have been made critical by linking their resources.

Cost Schedules

A detailed cost schedule showing weekly or monthly costs over the life of the project should be produced.

In general costs are categorized as

Staff costs

Staff salaries, contribution to the social security fund, pension

Overheads

Space rental, interest charges, costs of service departments

Module IV: Monitoring, Control and Team Management

Monitoring and Control

Creating framework Collecting data Visualizing progress Cost monitoring Earned value analysis Priority monitoring Change control

Creating Framework

Exercising control over a project and ensuring that targets are met is a matter of regular monitoring, finding out what is happening and comparing it with current targets.

The Project Control Flow

1.

2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.
10.

Start Publish initial plan Gather project information Compare progress If not satisfied take remedial action Repeat from step2 End Project Review Project Document Conclusions End

Departures From Plan

Delays

in meeting target dates Shortfalls in quality Inadequate functionality Costs going over target

Responsibility
Steering Committee

Project Manager

Team Leader

Team Leader

Collecting Data : Weekly Time sheet

Weekly timesheets are adapted by breaking jobs down to activity level and requiring information about work done in addition to time spent.

Gantt Chart Showing key Operations in a Recruitment Process

Visualizing Progress:

A Gantt chart provides a graphical illustration of a schedule that helps to plan, coordinate, and track specific tasks in a project.

Time line Chart

Is a method of recording and displaying the way in which targets have changed throughout the duration of the project. Knowing the current state of project helps in revising the plans to bring it back on target.

COST MONITORING
A cumulative expenditure chart such as that shown in figure provides a simple method of comparing actual and planned expenditure

Earned Value Analysis

Is based on assigning a value to each task based on the original expenditure forecast. The assigned value is known as the planned value (PV) and the total value credited to a project at any point is known as earned value (EV).CPI and SPI can be thought of as value for moneyindices.A value greater than 1 indicates that work is being completed better than planned ,where as a value less than one means that work is costing more and/proceeding slowly.

Priority Monitoring

Following is the priority for monitoring the activities.

Critical

Path activities

Activities
Activities High

with no free float

with less than a specified float

risk activities using Critical resources

Activities

Change Control
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Users issue a RFC

User management passes it to the dev: mgmnt

Dev : mgmnt delegates a member for assessing the request Dev mgmnt reports back to the user mgmnt about the findings One or more developers are authorized to take copies of the master products The copies are modified .ex : modifying code User mgmnt is notified and copies are distributed for user acceptance When user clears it , the master copies are replaced with the modified ones.

6. 7.

8.

Managing Teams
Organizational behavior, Oldham-Hackman job characteristics model, Becoming a team, Motivation, Decision making, Leadership, Organizational structures, Dispersed and virtual teams.

Donald McGregors Theories

Theory X The average human has an innate dislike of work. There is a need therefore for coercion ,direction and control. People tend to avoid responsibility

Theory Y Work is as natural as rest or play Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The average human can learn to accept and further seek responsibility.

Oldham-Hackman job characteristics model

Skill variety

The number of different skills that job holder has the opportunity to exercise
The degree to which your work and its results are identifiable as belonging to you The degree to which your work has an influence on others The discretion you have about the way that you do the job The information you get back about the results of your work

Task identity

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Methods of improving motivation

Managers should group together the elements of tasks to be carried out so

that they form meaningful and satisfying asignments.Satisfaction of a job

gives is based on five factors.

Set specific goals Provide feedback Consider job design

Two measures are used to enhance job design

Job enlargement Job enrichment

Becoming a team

Simply throwing people together will not immediately enable them to work together as a team.
Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning

Best Team Mix

Valuable research has examined the best mix of personalities in a project team.
The

chair The plant The monitor-evaluator The shaper The team worker The resource investigator The complete-finisher The company worker

Group Performance

Some work yields better results carried out as a team while some things

are slowed down if the work is compartmentalized on an individual basis.

Group Tasks can be categorized into:

Additive tasks Compensatory tasks Disjunctive tasks Conjunctive tasks

Social Loafing

Leadership
Leadership is generally taken to mean the ability to

influence
others in a group to act in a particular way to achieve group goals

Position Power Coercive power Connection power Legitimate power Reward power Personal power Expert power Information power Referent power

Leadership Styles

Leadership styles can be measured on two axes

Directive Vs permissive Autocratic Vs democratic

Directive

autocrat
autocrat

Permissive Directive

democrat democrat

Permissive

Organizational Structures

Formal versus informal structures Hierarchical approach Staff versus line Departmentalization

Module V: Software Quality and Configuration Management

Software Quality
Importance Defining ISO 9126 Quality measures Product versus process quality management External standards Techniques to enhance quality Quality plan

Importance of Software Quality

Increasing criticality of software

Ex

: software used in avionics

developer produce deliverables that can be examined

The intangibility of software

The

Accumulating errors during software development

The

later in a project that an error is found the more expensive it will be to fix.

Defining Software Quality

Quality is rather a vague term and is relative .For any s/w system there should be three specifications
A functional
Describes

specification

what the system is to do

A quality
How

specification
specification

well the functions are to operate

A resource
How

much is to be spent on the system

A quality specification

Definition/description

Definition of quality characteristic

The unit of measurement

Scale

Test

The practical test

The worst value which might be acceptable

Minimally acceptable

Target range

The range of value for quality measurement

The value that applies currently

Now

ISO 9126

The ISO 9126 standard was first introduced in 1991 to tackle the question of the definition of software quality. It identifies six major external s/w quality characteristics

Functionality Reliability Usability Efficiency Maintainability Portability

ISO 9126 guidelines

Judge the importance of each quality characteristic for the application . Select the external quality measurement within the ISO 9126 framework relebant to

Practical Software Quality Measures

Reliability Maintainability Extendibility

Product versus process quality management

An alternative approach is to scrutinize the quality of the processes through which the s/w product is developed Errors should be eradicated by careful examination of the deliverables of each stage before they are passed on to the next stage

External Standards

Standards like ISO 9000 series try to ensure that a monitoring and control system to check quality is in place They are concerned with the certification of the development process not of the end product.

Capability process models

Capability Maturity Models

These models attempt to place organizations at one of the five levels of

process maturity which indicate the sophistication and quality of their production practices

Level 1: Initial
Level 2:Managed Organizations Level 3:Defined Level 4:Quantitatively Managed Level 5:Optimizing