Lecture 33: Quantum Computing 2

Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Richard Spillman
PLU
Fall 2003

1
Class Topics

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2
Last Class

• Why Quantum Computing?

• What is Quantum Computing?

• History

• Quantum Weirdness

• Quantum Properties

• Quantum Devices
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Review – The Need

• The size of components will drop down to the

one atom per device level by 2020

4
Review - Superposition

• The Principal of Superposition states if a

quantum system can be measured to be in
one of a number of states then it can also
exist in a blend of all its states
simultaneously

• RESULT: An n-bit qubit register can be in all

2n states at once
– Massively parallel operations

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Outline

• Quantum Logic Gates II

• Quantum Dots

• Quantum Error Correction

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Quantum Logic
Gates II

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Controlled NOT

• One of the first quantum logic gates

proposed was the Controlled-NOT gate
which implements an XOR
– It has two inputs and two outputs (required for
reversibility)

c c’
c t c’ t’
0 0 0 0 t t’
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 The target, t, is inverted when
1 1 1 0 the control, c, is “1”
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Toffoli Gate

• Example of a reversible AND sometimes

called controlled-controlled-NOT gate
– It has three inputs and three outputs
– The target input is XORed with the AND of the
two control inputs
C1 c2 t c1’ c2’ t’
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
c1 c1’
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 c2 c2’
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 t t’
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0
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Quantum Gate Operation

• Suppose the control input is in a

superposition state, what happens to the
target, does it get flipped or not?
– The answer is that it does both
– In fact, c and t become entangled

0 +1
c c’
00 + 11
t t’
Entangled states – that is
0 a superposition of states in
which c and t are either both
spin up or spin down
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Quantum Dots

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Quantum Dots

• Quantum dots are small metal or semi-conductor

boxes that hold well defined number of electrons

• The number of electrons in a box may be adjusted

by changing the dots electrostatic environment
– Dots have been made which vary from 30 nm to 1 micron
– They hold from 0 to 100 electrons

e
Quantum dot Quantum dot
w/electron wo/electron

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Quantum Dot Wireless Logic

• Lent and Porod of Notre Dame proposed a

wireless two-sate quantum dot device
called a “cell”
– Each cell consists of 5 quantum dots and two
electrons

e e

e e
State “1” State “0”

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Quantum Dot Wire

• By placing two “cells” adjacent to each

other and forcing the first cell into a certain
state, the second cell will assume the
same state in order to lower its energy

The net effect is that a “1”

has moved on to the next cell
e e e
By stringing cells together in
this way, a “pseudo-wire” can
e e ee be made to transport a signal

In contrast to a real wire,

however, no current flows
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Quantum Dot Majority Gate

• Logic gates can be constructed with

quantum dot cells
– The basic logic gate for a quantum dot cell is
the majority gate

in in

in out in out

in in

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Quantum Dot Inverter

• Two cells that are off center will invert a

signal

out
in

out
in

out
in

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Quantum Dot Logic Gates

• AND, OR, NAND, etc can be formed from

the NOT and the MAJ gates

0 0
0
1 0 1
A nand B
A A and B A
1
1
0
B 1 1 B
A A or B

0
B
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Quantum Error
Correction

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Quantum Errors

• PROBLEM:
PROBLEM When computing with a quantum
computer, you can’t look at what it is doing
– You are only allowed to look at the end

• RESULT:
RESULT What happens if an error is
introduced during calculation?

• SOLUTION:
SOLUTION We need some sort of quantum
error detection/correction procedure

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Classical Error Codes

• In standard digital systems bits are added to a data

word in order to detect/correct errors
• A code is e-error detecting if any fault which causes at
most e bits to be erroneous can be detected
• A code is e-error correcting if for any fault which
causes at most e erroneous bits, the set of all correct
bits can be automatically determined
• The Hamming Distance,
Distance d, of a code is the minimum
number of bits in which any two code words differ
– the error detecting/correcting capability of a code depends on
the value of d

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Parity Checking
• PROCESS: Add an extra bit to a word before
transmitting to make the total number of bits even or
odd (even or odd parity)
– at the receiving end, check the number of bits for even or
odd parity
– It will detect a single bit error
– Cost: extra bit

• Example: Transmit the 8-bit data word 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

1
– Even parity version: 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
– Odd parity version: 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

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Quantum Schemes

• In 1994 the first paper on Quantum error

correction was presented at a conference
in England
– It required the quantum computer to run
simultaneous copies of a calculation
– If no errors occurred all the separate copies
would produce the same answer
– Using a inefficient procedure a wrong answer
could be restored

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Improvements

• In 1995, Peter Shor developed a better

procedure using 9 qubits to encode a
single qubit of information

• His algorithm was a majority vote type of

system that allowed all single qubit errors
to be detected and corrected

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Example

• A 3-bit quantum error correction scheme

uses an encoder and a decoder circuit as
shown below:

Input qubit Output qubit

Operations
Encoder Decoder
0 & Errors

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Encoder

• The encoder will entangle the two

redundant qubits with the input qubit:

a|0> + b|1> If the input state is |0> then

the encoder does nothing so
|0> the output state is |000>
|0>
If the input state is |1> then
the encoder flips the lower
states so the output state is
|111>

If the input is an superposition state, then the output

is the entangled state a|000> + b|111>
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Decoder

• Problem: Any correction must be done without looking

at the output
– The decoder looks just like the encoder:

Corrected output

}Measure: if 11 flip the top qubit

If the input to the decoder is |000> or |111> there was
no error so the output of the decoder is:
Input Output
|000> |000>
|111> |100> (the top 1 causes the bottom bits to flip)
Error free flag
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Example

No Errors:
a|000> + b|111> decoded to a|000> + b|100> = (a|0> + b|1>)|00>
Top qubit flipped:
a|100> + b|011> decoded to a|111> + b|011> = (a|1> + b|0>)|11>
So, flip the top qubit = (a|0> + b|1>)|11>
Middle qubit flipped:
a|010> + b|101> decoded to a|010> + b|110> = (a|0> + b|1>)|10>

Bottom qubit flipped:

a|001> + b|110> decoded to a|001> + b|101> = (a|0> + b|1>)|01>
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Decoder w/o Measurement

• The prior decoder circuit requires the

measurement of the two extra bits and a
possible flip of the top bit
– Both these operations can be implemented
automatically using a Toffoli gate

} If these are both 1

then flip the top bit

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Possible Capstone

• For a senior project, work out examples of

quantum error correction schemes and
compare them to digital error correction

• Implement a Quantum Dot simulator and

construct Quantum Dot circuits

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Possible Quiz

• Remember that even though each quiz is worth

only 5 to 10 points, the points do add up to a
significant contribution to your overall grade

• If there is a quiz it might cover these issues:

– What is a quantum dot?
– Why are errors a problem with quantum systems?
– What does a controlled NOT gate do?

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Summary

• Quantum Logic Gates II

• Quantum Dots

• Quantum Error Correction

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