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Dose

Energy Gained
Particles lose energy in matter.
Eventually energy loss is due to ionization.


An important measure is the amount of energy
gained by the material as a particle passes or stops.
Energy Transferred
Energy transferred describes the kinetic
energy gained by charged particles.

Energy imparted is the energy lost by
charged particles.
10
MeV
4.2
5.4
2.8
3.6
2.0
0.1
1.1
particle energy
energy transferred
energy imparted
9.0
2.8 3.3 2.8 1.1
Energy Imparted
Energy transferred
Radiant energy into a
volume from uncharged
particles
Radiant energy out tpo
uncharged particles (not
brem or annihilation)
Energy change from mass
Energy imparted
Start with energy
transferred
Energy in from charged
particles
Energy out from charged
particles

+ = Q R R E
nonrad
unc out unc in tr
) ( ) (

+ +
=
Q R R
R R E
chg out chg in
nonrad
unc out unc in
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
Kerma
Kerma is the energy transferred
per unit mass.
Kinetic Energy Released
per unit MAss

Radiative kerma is the energy
loss per mass due to brem and
annihilation.

Collision kerma subtracts the
reradiated photons.
Net energy transferred per
mass
dm
E d
K
tr
=
dm
R d
K
rad
unc
r
=
dm
E d
K K K
net
tr
r C
= =
Absorbed Dose
Absorbed dose or dose is the
energy imparted per unit mass.

Like kerma dose is based on
mean changes in energy.

Two units are used.
1 gray (Gy) = 1 J / kg
1 rad = 100 erg / g (older)
dm
E d
D =
rad 100
g
erg
10
g 10
erg 10
kg
J
Gy 1
4
3
7
= =
=
Lethality
Dose can be compared to
physical effects.

Lethality refers to the likelihood
that a dose will be fatal.
Cell death
Whole body death (see
graph at right)

Federation of American Scientists
Dose (cGy)
L
e
t
h
a
l
i
t
y

%

Equilibrium
Measuring the relationship
between energy transferred and
imparted requires equilibrium
conditions.
Radiation equilibrium






Charged particle equilibrium
Looser requirement
chg out chg in
R R ) ( ) ( =
unc out unc in
R R ) ( ) ( =

= Q E

+ = Q R R E
unc out unc in
) ( ) (
Exposure
Exposure is defined by the
ionization produced by photons.
Gammas and X-rays
Charge per unit mass in air

The original unit is 1 esu / cm
3

of dry air at STP (1928).
Roentgen (R)
R = 2.58 x 10
-4
C / kg
(1962)
Useful Conversion
Show that the original roentgen
is equivalent to the modern one.

Look up constants:
Density of air at STP is
0.001293 g / cm
-3
1 esu = 3.34 x 10
-10
C

3.34 x 10
-10
C / 1.293 x 10
-6
kg
= 2.58 x 10
-4
C / kg
Gamma Rate
Assume a point source of
gammas.
Activity C
Average photon energy E

Consider a sphere or radius r.
Fluence through sphere u
Mass energy absorption

en
/ = 2.7 x 10
-3
m
2
/kg

Find the dose and exposure rate.
1 R = 0.0088 Gy
Rate of energy release:


Fluence rate:
Dose rate:




Exposure rate:
CE
dt
dE
=
2
4 r
CE
t
= u

Gy/s
s/BqJ) (m 10 27 . 1
4
2
2 6
2
r
CE
r
CE
D
en en

=
= u =


R/h
s/BqJ) (m 5 . 0
2
2
r
CE
X =

Radiation Factor
The effect of radiation on tissue
depends on the LET as well as
the dose.
Higher LET is more
damaging.

Radiation has a weighting
factor based on particle.
Factor W
R
or Q
Updated in 1991
In terms of LET
LET L (keV / m in water)
< 10; W
R
= 1
10 100; W
R
= 0.32L 2.2
> 100;

In terms of particle
e, , ; W
R
= 1
n; W
R
= 5 20
p; W
R
= 5
o; W
R
= 20
L W
R
/ 300 =
Restricted Stopping Power
Secondary electrons ejected
from atoms are delta rays.
Deltas deliver most of the
dose
Energy less effective if its
too high

Restricted stopping power
measures the energy lost up to a
limit A.
Typical Problem
Estimate a cutoff value for
irradiating 300 viruses.
Answer
Most energetic delta range
should not exceed 300 .
Find range limit 3 x 10
-6
cm
Range in water
500 eV is 2 x 10
-6
g/cm
2
1 keV is 5 x 10
-6
g/cm
2

Estimate cutoff at 700 eV.
}
A
=
min
) (
Q
dQ Q QP
dx
dE

Equivalent Dose
The equivalent dose is a
measure that combines the type
of radiation and dose.


Unit is Sievert (Sv)
1 Gy equivalent
Older unit is rem
Roentgen equivalent man
1 rad equivalent
100 rem = 1 Sv
Natural doses
Cosmics: 0.3 mSv / yr
Soil: 0.2 mSv / yr
Radon: 2 mSv / yr
Total natural: 3 mSv / yr

Environmental hazards
Flying at 12 km: 7 Sv / hr
Chest x-ray: 0.1 mSv
Mammogram: 1 mSv
CT scan: 20 mSv
D W H
R T
=
Neutron Interactions

Neutrons present a
unique situation for
dose determination.
No interaction
with atomic
electrons
Cross sections
vary with target
nucleus
Neutron Scattering
Elastic scattering from nuclei is
the most important process for
neutron energy loss.
Assume classical collision
Set M = 1 and compare for
nuclei

Nucleus Q
max
/En

1
H 1.000

2
H 0.889

4
He 0.640

9
Be 0.360

12
C 0.284

16
O 0.221

56
Fe 0.069

118
Sn 0.033

238
U 0.017
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
max
) (
4
) (
) (
4
m M
mME
MV
m M
mM
MV MV Q
n
f
+
=
+
=
=
Neutron Dose Equivalent
Neutron weighting factors were
variable.
W
R
= 5-20.

The factors can be determined
from assumed elastic scattering.
Example
Find W
R
for 2-MeV neutrons.
Average recoil p is 1 MeV
Stopping power for 1 MeV
p in water is 270 MeV/cm
Equal to 27 keV/m
2 . 2 32 . 0 = L W
R
4 . 6 2 . 2 ) 27 ( 32 . 0 = =
R
W
Neutron Threshold
Inelastic collisions result in a
nuclear reaction.
Many are endothermic
Requires extra energy

For example
32
S(n,p)
32
P:
E
th
= 0.957 MeV

32
P
32
S + |
-
E
|max
= 1.71 MeV
T = 14.3 days
Used to detect exposure
Change in rest energy


Conservation of energy and
momentum


4 3 2 1
M M M M Q + =
Q E E E + =
4 3 1
4 3 1
p p p + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
= >
1 4 3
4 3
1
M M M
M M
Q E E
th
Neutron Activation
Time dependence of activity
from neutron capture is based
on exposure and decay.
Constant rate of fluence u
Minimal loss of target N
T


Typical Problem
A 3-g sample of
32
S is irradiated
with fast neutrons at 155 cm
-2
s
-
1
. The cross section is 0.200
barn. What is the maximum
activity?
Answer
The number of target nuclei,


The maximum is for large t.
N N
dt
dN
T
o u =

( )
t
T
e
N
N

u
= 1

Bq 75 . 1
max
= u =
T
N N o

22
10 64 . 5
32
3
= =
A T
N N

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