6.

4 Digital Modulation-An overview

Modern Mobile communication uses digital modulation techniques. Advancements in DSP and VLSI have made digital modulation more cost effective than analog transmission systems Advantages: 1. Greater noise immunity

2. Robustness to channel impairments

3. Easier multiplexing of (voice, data & video) 4. Security
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5. Digital error- control codes detect and/or correct Tx errors 6. Complex signal conditioning & processing(encryption,equalization) 7. Programmable DSP Digital modulators, demodulators software 8. Modem design using embedded software implementation(No redesign/replace Modem).
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 Modulating (message) signal

Symbols/pulses m finite states Each symbol n bits of information n = log m bits/symbol

6.4.1 Factors that influence the choice of Digital Modulation

Desirable Modulation Scheme low BER at low SNR occupies min. BW Easy & cost effective to implement

Performance of Modulation Scheme is measured in terms of power efficiency BW efficiency

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Power Efficiency p
Ability of modulation technique to preserve the fidelity[Bit Error Prob] of msg even at low power levels
To Noise immunity by signal power Amount by which signal power to have certain fidelity type of modulation is used.

Power Efficiency
Power efficiency : p : (Energy efficiency) p = Signal energy per bit = Noise power spectral density Eb No

Required at Rx to have certain Probability of error

 Bandwidth efficiency Ability of mod scheme to accommodate data within a limited BW How efficiently allocated BW is utilized

B = Throughput data rate = R bits/s bps/Hz Hz in a given BW B BW of modulated RF

System capacity B B Tx more data in a given spectrum
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 Shannons Channel Coding theorem For a given prob of error max possible BW efficiency limited by noise in the channel Channel capacity formula = Bmax = [C/B] = log*1+S/N+ C Channel capacity B RF BW
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6.4.2 Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals

PSD of a random signal w(t) is

WT(f) FT of WT(t) WT(t) = w(t) for T/2<t<T/2 0 elsewhere

 The PSD of a bandpass signal is related to PSD of its baseband complex envelope S(t) modulated (BandPass) signal g(t) complex baseband envelope

S(t) = Re{g(t) exp(j2fct)} Ps(f) = 0.25[Pg(f-fc)+Pg(-f-fc)]

Pg(f) = PSD of g(t)
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 Absolute BW Range of freq over which signal has nonzero PSD. But for rectangular pulses , PSD extends over infinite range of frequencies Simpler measure of BW null-to-null BW = Width of main spectral lobe

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 Popular Measure of BW measures dispersion of spectrum Half Power BW(3 dB Bandwidth) HP BW(3 dB bandwidth) Interval b/w frequencies at which PSD has dropped to one half power or 3dB below the peak values.

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6.5 Line Coding

Digital baseband signals use line codes to Provide particular spectral characteristics of a pulse train

Common line Codes for mobile comm. Return-to-zero(RZ) non-return-to-zero(NRZ) Manchester codes
Unipolar v/g levels 0 or v Bipolar v/g levels -v or v
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 RZ pulse train returns to zero within every bit period

Spectral widening but improves timing synchronization NRZ dont return to zero during a bit period signal constant throughout a bit period more efficient than RZ but results in poor synchronization

have large dc component not used in dc blocking ckts such as audio amplifiers or phone switching equipment
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Manchester code Spl NRZ line code no dc comp simple synch used in phone lines and dc blocking ckts Use 2 pulses for each binary symbol zero-crossings are guaranteed in every bit perid provide easy clock recovery

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6.7 Geometric Representation of Modulation Signals

In Digital modulation choose Si(t) from set of possible wave forms/symbols

S=,S(t),S(t),.,SM(t)} M Total No. of possible signals S modulation signal set

Binary Modulation schemes S only 2 signals
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 Higher level mod (M-ary keying) signal set more than 2 signals

Signal set size M No of bits/symbol logM

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 Elements of S viewed as points in vector space

Finite set of physically realizable w/fs in vector space expressed as linear combination of N orthonormal w/fs Form the basis of the vector space Representing modulation signal on a vector space Find set of signals that form basis for that vector space.
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 Once basis is found any pt in vector space linear combination of basis signals

The basis signals are orthogonal to one another in time such that Each of the basis signals is normalized to have unit energy, i.e.,

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 For BPSK scheme,

the basis signal

then, the BPSK signal set can be represented as

Eb-Energy per bit Tb-Bit period

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A constellation diagram

Graphical representation of the complex envelope of each possible symbol state.

The X-axis represents the in-phase components y-axis represents the quadrature component of complex envelope
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 The number of basis signals required to represent the complete modulation signal set is called the dimension of the vector space. No of basis signals<=No of signals in the modulation signal set all the signals in the set are necessarily orthogonal Modulation schemes constellation densely packed BW efficient.
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 Prob of bit error distance b/w closest point in the constellation. Modulation scheme densely packed less energy efficient Average probability of error for a particular modulation signal, No Noise spectral density dij Euclidean distance b/w ith & jth signal points Q-function

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Linear Modulation Techniques

In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude of the transmitted signals, s(t), varies linearly with the modulating digital signal, m(t)(Hence non constant envelope).

Linear modulation techniques are bandwidth efficient, but must be transmitted using linear RF amplifiers which have poor power efficiency.

Using the power efficient nonlinear RF amplifiers could cause severe adjacent channel interference, and results in the loss of all the spectral efficiency gained by linear modulation.

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Constant Envelop Modulation(Amplitude of carrier is constant)

The constant envelop family of modulation has the following advantages:

Power efficient Class C amplifiers can be used without introducing degradation in the spectrum occupancy.
Low out-of-band radiation(-60 to -70 dB) Limiter-discriminator detection can be used, which simplifies receiver design and high immunity towards noise and fading effects.

But, they occupy a larger bandwidth than linear modulation schemes.

Many practical mobile radio communication systems use Non linear modulation Schemes

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Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

The frequency of a constant amplitude carrier signal is switched between two values according to the two possible message states(binary 1 or 0).

where 2f is a constant offset from the nominal carrier frequency

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Generation of FSK(discontinuous FSK)

switching b/w two independent oscillators depending on databit is 1 or 0 and it is discontinuous at switching times (phase discontinuity)

Discontinuous FSK signal is represented as,

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Phase discontinuities several problems

spectral spreading spurious transmissions hence not used in highly regulated wireless systems
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common method of Generation of FSK frequency modulate single carrier oscillator c(t) using m(t) FSK wave is similar to analog FM , except that m(t) is binary waveform

1/0

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Spectrum and BW of BFSK signals

Complex envelope of FSK signal nonlinear function of m(t) PSD of FSK has discrete frequency components at fc, fc+nf, fc-nf n is integer PSD of continuous phase FSK falls off as inverse fourth power of frequency offset from fc.
1/ [ 2f ]4

PSD of discontinuous phase FSK falls off as inverse square of frequency offset from fc.
1/ [ 2f ]2
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 Transmission BW of FSK signal, from Carsons rule, BT = 2f + 2B B BW of digital baseband signal If first null BW is used, BW of rectangular pulses, is B=R. FSK transmission BW = 2f + 2R = 2(f+R) If raised cosine pulse-shaping filter is used, B = (1 + ) R/2 BT = 2f + (1+)R roll off factor of the filter
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Coherent Detection of Binary FSK

Two Correlator with locally generated coherent reference signals Diff of Correlator o/p compared with threshold diff>Th1 diff<Th0 Prob of error for coherent FSK Rx is,

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Coherent Detection of Binary FSK

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Non coherent Detection of Binary FSK

Detect FSK signal without coherent carrier reference Pair of matched filters envelope detectors Filter in upper path matched to FSK signal of frequency fL Filter in lower path matched to FSK signal of frequency fH
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Non coherent Detection of Binary FSK

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Non coherent Detection of Binary FSK

Matched filters BPF centered at fH & fL Envelope detectors O/P sampled at t=kTb compared If envelope detector o/p> or < threshold o/p 1/0

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 Probability of error of an FSK system non coherent detection,

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6.9.2 Minimum Shift Keying

Special type of Continuous phase frequency shift keying (CPFSK) Peak frequency deviation = (Bit rate)/4 Frequency difference between the logical one and logical zero states equal to half the data rate MSK Continuous phase FSK with modulation index = 0.5 Modulation Index of FSK = FM modulation index

F peak RF frequency deviation Rb Bit rate

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 Modulation index = 0.5 min frequency spacing b/w fH & fL that allows two FSK signals to be coherently orthogonal Two FSK signals vH(t) & vL(t) are orthogonal iff,

MSK fast FSK frequency spacing used = 1/2of[used in noncoherent FSK]

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 MSK used in mobile radio comm system constant envelope spectral efficiency good BER performance self synchronizing capacity

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 MI(t) & MQ(t) odd & even bits of bipolar data stream 1 feed the In-phase & Quadrature arms of modulator at a rate of Rb/2

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 MSK special type of continuous phase FSK of above SMSK(t) is rewritten using trigonometric identities as,

If k 0 or mI(t) is 1 or -1
MSK constant amplitude
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 Phase continuity at bit transition period is ensured by choosing carrier frequency fc integral multiple of one fourth the bit period 1/4T
Compare SFSK & SMSK MSK signal is an FSK signal with binary signaling frequencies fc+1/4T & fc-1/4T

phase of MSK signal varies linearly during each bit period

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MSK Power Spectrum

From RF power spectrum is obtained by frequency shifting the magnitude squared of the FT of the baseband pulse shaping function Baseband pulse shaping function is,

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 Normalized PSD is,

From PSD of MSK MSK has lower side lobe than QPSK & OQPSK
99% of MSK power is contained within B = 1.2/T

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 99% of QPSK & OQPSK is contained within B = 8/T MSK has faster rolloff due to smoother pulse functions Main lobe of MSK is wider than QPSK & OQPSK MSK is less spectrally efficient than PSK techniques when compared in terms of first null bandwidth
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 No change in phase at bit transition periods MSK has continuous phase property

Envelope is constant even after band limiting

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 Small variations in envelope removed by hard limiting at the Rx without raising the out-ofband radiation levels Amplitude is constant MSK signals are amplified using nonlinear amplifiers MSK simple demodulation & synchronization ckts. Hence popular among mobile radio communications
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MSK Transmitter

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MSK Transmitter and Receiver

Carrier Xlied with cos[t/2T] produce two phase-coherent signals at fc+1/4T & fc-1/4T 2 FSK signals separated using 2 NBPF combined to form in-phase x(t) & quadrature y(t) carrier components

These carriers are Xlied with odd & even bit streams mi(t) & mq(t) produce MSK signal SMSK(t)

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MSK Receiver

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 SMSK(t) Xlied by in-phase x(t) & quadrature y(t) carriers o/p of Xliers are integrated over two bit periods dumped to decision ckt at the end of each two bit periods
Based on o/p of integrator threshold detector o/p is 0/1 o/p data streams mi(t)/mq(t) offset combined to get demodulated signal.
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6.9.3 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

Simple Binary modulation scheme derivative of MSK Sidelobe levels by passing modulating NRZ data waveform through premodulation Gaussian pulse shaping filter

NRZ data w/f Gaussian Filter Smoothened o/p

stabilizes the instantaneous frequency variations over time which reduces the sidelobe levels in Transmitted spectrum

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 GMSK can be detected using coherent detector (as MSK) detected using noncoherent detector (as FSK) Has excellent power efficiency(due to constant envelope) & spectral efficiency Premodulation gaussian filtering Introduces ISI in the Tx signal but degradation is not severe if 3dB bandwidth bit duration product (BT) of filter is greater than 0.5
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 GMSK premodulation filter has impulse response,

Transfer function,

GMSK filter defined by B & baseband symbol duration T. Therefore GMSK is defined by its BT product

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 PSD for various values of BT roll off factor

BT sidelobe levels falls off very rapidly error rate produced by LPF due to ISI

GMSK spectrum becomes more & more compact with BT value

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GMSK Bit Error Rate Bit error probability for GMSK is,

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GMSK Transmitter & Receiver GMSK Transmitter :

Pass a NRZ message bit stream through a Gaussian baseband filter having impulse response

followed by FM modulator

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 Used in US Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) & Global System for mobile (GSM) system.

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GMSK Receiver :

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GMSK Receiver : Orthogonal coherent detectors Or

Use simple noncoherent detectors FM discriminators

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Pbm

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6.10 Combined Linear & Constant Envelope Modulation Techniques

Digital BB data is sent by varying both envelope & phase (or frequency) of carrier M-ary modulation

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M-ary signaling scheme two or more bits are grouped together symbols one of M signals S1(t), S2(t),,SM(t) is Tx during each symbol period of duration Ts No. of possible signals = M = 2 ; n integer amplitude, phase or frequency of carrier is varied M-ary ASK, M-ary PSK or M-ary FSK
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M-ary Modulation Schemes

Achieve better BW efficiency than Power Efficiency Eg: 8-PSK BW = log8 = 3 times smaller than BPSK BER performance worse than BPSK

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6.10.1 M-ary Phase Shift Keying (MPSK)

M-ary PSK carrier phase takes on one of M possible values Modulated waveform,

Energy per symbol symbol period

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 Si(t) can be rewritten in quadrature form as,

i = 1,2,..,M Choose the basis signals,

Over 0 t Ts
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 M-ary PSK signal is,

i=1,2,..,M There are 2 basis signals(therefore constellation is 2 dimensional) M-ary msg points equally spaced on a circle of radius Es centered at origin
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 Fig 6.45 constellation diagram of 8-ary PSK M-ary PSK amp of Tx signal const circular constellation MPSK const envelope signal when no pulse shaping used

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 = 6.62

Fig 6.45 distance b/w adjacent symbols = 2Es(sin(/M)) &

Average symbol error probability of coherent M-ary PSK is,

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 M-ary PSK coherently detected

Differentially encoded for noncoherent differential detection

Symbol error probability of differential M-ary PSK system in AWGN channel M 4 is,

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Power Spectra of M-ary PSK

Ts symbol duration Tb Bit duration Ts = TblogM PSD of M-ary PSK signal with rectangular pulses is,

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Fig 6.46 As M first null BW Rb = const

M BW efficiency Fixed Rb M B B M constellation is densely packed power efficiency

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6.10.2 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

QAM Hybrid modulation Technique: Vary both A & Phase
Fig 6.47 constellation diagram 16 ary QAM square lattice of signal points

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 General M-ary QAM is,

Emin energy of signal with lowest amplitude Closest point has min energy ai & bi pair of independent integers M-ary QAM doesnt have const energy per symbol, doesnt have const dist b/w symbol states
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 Si(t) in terms of 2 basis fns,

(ai,bi) element of L by L matrix, gives location

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 Eg: 16-QAM signal constellation Fig 6.47, LXL matrix is, L=16=4

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 Average prob of error M-ary QAM, using coherent detection,

In terms of average signal energy, Eav

Power spectrum & BW efficiency of QAM identical to M-ary PSK modulation Power efficiency of QAM superior to M-ary PSK
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All points have equal amplitudes

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6.10.3 M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK) and OFDM

M-FSK signals,the transmitted signal is defined as

M Tx signals equal energy equal duration signal frequencies are separated by 1/2Ts Hz & signals are orthogonal
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Coherent detection of M-ary FSK: has bank of M correlators matched filters tuned to M distinct carriers Avg prob of error = Noncoherent detection: Using matched filters followed by envelope detectors, Avg probability of error is,

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 Using only leading terms of binomial expansion, the prob of error,

BW of coherent M-ary FSK signal,

BW of noncoherent MSK is,

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 BW efficiency of M-ary FSK with M

M-FSK BW inefficient All M signals are orthogonal no crowding in signal space power effi with M , It can be amplified using nonlinear amplifiers

Orthogonality characteristic of MFSK led to OFDM power efficient signaling for a large no. of users on the same channel.
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6.11 Spread spectrum modulation techniques.

Modulation & demodulation techniques BW efficiency power efficiency Spread spectrum pseudorandom BW =>BW inefficient (disadvantage) noise like properties Advantage : multiple users use same BW simultaneously.
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 Spreading of waveform is controlled by: o Pseudo noise(PN) sequence or o Pseudo noise code. At Rx-> SS signals demodulated using locally generated pseudo random carrier. cross correlation with PN sequence-> despreads the spread spectrum signal=> restores the message.
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Advantage: Interference rejection capability

o Each user is given a unique PN code-> orthogonal to the code of other users. o Rx separates each user based on their codes, even though they occupy the same spectrum at all times.

Narrowband interference-> removed using notch filtering.

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 Advantage: Eliminates freq planning since all cells can use the same channels. SS signals have uniform energy over a large BW-> hence at a given time only a small portion of the spectrum will undergo fading.

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6.11.1 pseudo-noise (PN) sequences.

Binary sequence with an autocorrelation that resembles the autocorrelation of a random binary sequence. A.C->also resembles the A.C of band limited white noise

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 Characteristics of PN sequences:

Equal number of 0s & 1s.

Very low correlation b/w shifted versions of the sequence. Very low cross correlation b/w any two sequences.

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 PN sequence is generated using-> sequential logic circuits.

Has consecutive stages of two state memory. Feedback logic.

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 Binary sequence are shifted through shift registers wrt clock pulse Output of various stages are logically combined & fedback as the i/p to the first stage.

If feedback logic->has ex-or gates-> shift register is called a linear PN sequence generator.

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 Initial contents of memory stages and the feed back logic -> decides>successive contents of memory.

If linear S.R reaches zero state at some time-> always remain in the zero state-> o/p all 0s. There are (2^m)-1 non zero states for m-stage F/B registers. Sequence ->linear F/B register-> maximal length (ML) sequence.
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 6.11.2 direct sequence spread spectrum(DS-SS).

DS-SS->system->spreads the baseband data by multiplying BB data pulses with PN sequence. Single pulse/symbol of PN waveform-> chip.

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 Data symbols

Rectangular pulses v=+1/-1. information bits added in modulo 2 fashion.

chips before being phase modulated

At Rx-> use coherent/differentially coherent PSK demodulation. The received spread spectrum signal for single user:

Diff user have diff p(t)

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 m(t) rectangular pulses of amplitude+1/-1 each symbol duration=Ts P(t) PN sequence each pulse chip(Narrower than the bit) rectangular pulse +1/-1 and duration=Tc.[Tc <<Ts Several chips in Ts] Transitions of data symbols & chips=>coincide such that Ts/Tc=integer. Bss->BW of spread spectrum. B->BW of m(t)cos2 fct-> Bw of modulated signal.
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 Rx signal passes through wideband filter Multiplied by local replica of PN code sequence p(t).

If p(t)=+1/-1=>P^2(t)=1 multiplication-=>yields despread signal s(t). BW NB Signal

-at input of demodulator.

Coherent PSK/differential PSK demodulator -> gives m(t).

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WBF O/P NB interference Rx Correlator o/p after despreading->Signal BW=B Interference get spread Interference BW >Bss Strong interference/weak signal STRONG SIGNAL & WEAK INTERFERENCE
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 Filtering action of demodulator-> removes most of interference spectrum. Interference rejection ratio=Bss/B.

Greater the PG=> greater the ability to suppress in-band interference.

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Example

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Approximate Spectrum of DSSS Signal

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6.11.3 frequency hopped spread spectrum.

It involves a periodic change of transmission frequency hopset-set of possible carrier frequencies. Hopping occurs over a frequency band that includes a number of channels. BW of channel used in hopset-> instantaneous BW. B
BW of spectrum over which hopping occurs-> total hopping BW. Bss
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 If single carrier frequency(single channel) is used on each hop->single channel modulation Time duration b/w hop->hop duration/hopping period(Th). Bss->total hopping BW.

B->instantaneous BW
PG=Bss/B.
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6.11.3 frequency hopped spread spectrum.

Carrier frequency abruptly change(hop)in accordance with PN code sequence. The set of possible carrier frequencies is called the hopset
Hopping occurs over a frequency band that includes a number of channels

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 The frequency of the carrier is periodically modified (hopped) following a specific sequence of frequencies.

In FHSS systems, the spreading code is this list of frequencies to be used for the carrier signal, a.k.a. the hopping sequence The amount of time spent on each hop is known as dwell time and is typically in the range of 100 ms.
Redundancy is achieved through the possibility to execute re-transmissions on different carrier frequencies (hops).

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If only a single carrier frequency is used on each hop, Modulation is called single channel modulation

The time duration between hops is called the hop duration or the hopping period and is denoted by Th
The total hopping bandwidth and the instantaneous bandwidth are denoted by Bss and B respectively. The processing gain = Bss/B for FHSS systems
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 Dehopped signal->hopping is removed from Rx signal. If the Frequency synthesizer produced by the receiver synthesizer is synchronized with the frequency pattern of the received signal ,then the mixer output is a dehopped signal.
It is possible to have collisions in an FH system where an undesired user transmits in the channel at the same time as the desired user
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 Frequency hopping-fast/slow. fast frequency hopping more than one frequency hop during each transmitted symbol. hopping rate information symbol rate.

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 slow frequency hopping One or more symbols are transmitted in the time interval b/w frequency hop.

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 If BFSK is used-> pair of instantaneous frequency changes with each hop.

Frequency channel occupied by transmitted symbol->transmission channel Frequency channel occupied by alternating symbol->complementary channel

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6.11.4 performance of direct sequence spread spectrum.

direct sequence spread spectrum with k users.

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 Each user-> PN sequence->N chips/ message symbol period T NTc=T Transmitted signal of Kth user,

Pk(t)->PN code sequence of Kth user. mk(t)->data sequence of Kth user. Rx signal will consist of sum of k different transmitted signals-> [one desired user & k-1 undesired user]+additive noise.

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 Reception Decision variable of ith Tx bit of user 1

if m1,i=-1=> bit is received in error if Zi(1)>0.

Probability of error= Rx signal r(t)-> linear combination of signals plus additive noise
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 Response of receiver due to the desired signal from user 1:

Gaussian random variable representing noise with zero mean & variance: with n(t) Additive Gaussian Noise

Multiple access interference from user k,

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 Ik-> has cummulative effects of N random chips from kth interferer over the integration period T of one bit.

From central limit theorem-> sum of these effects will tend toward gaussian distribution (k-1)->users which serve as identically distributed interferers=> total multiple access interference

Average probability of error is,

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 Single user=> k=1=> Pe expression=expression for BPSK modulation. Interference limited case-> No ->Eb/No ->
Therefore

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6.11.5 Performance of frequency hopping spread spectrum.

FH-SS systems-> many users hop their carrier frequencies using BFSK modulation.
If 2 users are not simultaneously utilizing the same band=> prob of error for BFSK is

If 2 users Tx simultaneously in the same frequency band-> collision/ hit occurs. Overall prob of error, Ph->prob of a hit. Prob that hit doesnt occur
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 If there are M hopping channels(slots)=>

There is 1/M prob that a given interferer will be present in the desired users slot. If there are (k-1)interfering users=> prob that at least one is present in the desired frequency slot

When M is too large.

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 If k=1, If Eb/No->, Till now assumption:

All users hop their carrier frequencies synchronously. =>slotted frequency hopping

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 Asynchronous case when,

Radio signals will not arrive synchronously[same time] to each user due to various propagation delays.

Prob of hit for asynchronous case is,

-> prob of hit is increased.

->Nb: number of bits per hop.

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 Prob of error for asynchronous FH-SS is

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