Global response to environmental issues

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Faculty of Planning & Public Policy

Centre for Environmental Planning & Technology (CEPT) University, Ahmedabad
CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 5
 Presentation Structure
•SECTIONS
 Important Environmental Declarations

 Institutions / Organizations

 Research organizations

 Conventions & Protocols

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 5

 Types of Global Environmental Problems

• Global Warming

• Ozone layer depletion

• Acid Rains or Acid Deposition

• Loss of bio-diversity

• Trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes and chemicals

• Deforestation

• Desertification

• Marine pollution

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 Important Environmental Declarations

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 Historical years
• Trend of how thinking pattern of the world changed in terms of ‘Environment’

• Historical years in the field of Environment in International Laws

1962
1962 - Declaration on the permanent
Sovereignty over natural resources

1972 1989
1972 - Stockholm Declaration

1989 - Hague Declaration

1992 1992 - Rio Declaration

2002
2002 - World Summit on Sustainable
Development

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 Historical years
1962 - Declaration on the permanent sovereignty over Natural
Resources

Pressure Pressure due

from to population
Industries explosion

Every nation declared their sovereign right over their territorial natural resources,
which resulted into
- Uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources
- Rapid degradation of natural resources

Resulted in massive over use of natural resources.

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 Historical years
1972 - Declaration of the UN Conference on Human Environment

Commonly known as Stockholm Declaration on The Human Environment

- Adopted by the United Nations Conference on Human Environment held at

Stockholm in 1972
- Adopted by 113 countries including India
- Resolution: 26 Principles

Important Principles:
1. Sustainable Development

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 Historical years
1972 - Declaration of the UN Conference on Human Environment

Principles directly concerning to international law:

2. Principle 21 (duty of every nation) – ‘One must use its own, so as not to cause
harm to others’. States that ‘Every state has a right to exploit its human and
natural resources, but it at the same time should see that these activities do
not cause any harm to other State.’
Trail Smelter Case, Comfu Canal Case

3. Principle 22 (obligation of every nation) – All States must co-operate to

develop International law for liability and compensation to the victims of
environmental pollution and other environmental damages.

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 Historical years
1972 - Declaration of the UN Conference on Human Environment

4. Human Rights – Recognised ‘Human Rights’

Concentrated on development of human environment
Right to live includes ‘right to healthy & hygienic living conditions

5. Natural Resources (Principle 2) – all natural resources of earth including land,

air, water, flora, fauna and other areas of ecological importance; must be
safeguarded for present and future generations.

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 Historical years
1972 - Declaration of the UN Conference on Human Environment

6. Prevention of pollution (Principle 7) – ‘States shall take adequate

precautions and measures to prevent pollution in sea caused by dumping
of hazardous substances, which are hazardous to human health and
environment (marine life).

7. Economic & Social Development (Principle 8) – It states that ‘Social and

economic development is essential for ensuring healthy living
environment’.

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 Historical years

1972 - Declaration of the UN Conference on Human Environment

9. Earthwatch – action plan for human environment and its development

- Evaluation and review
- includes education / finance / training
- encourage people’s participation

10. World Environment Day – 5th June (Environment & Environmental Protection)

11. Environment Fund – programme for preventing and eradicating global

environmental pollutions

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 Historical years
1989 - Hague Declaration on Environment

Declaration was held at Hague on 11th March, 1989

Signed by 24 nations, India was one of the signatory members

Objectives:
• The world leaders met to call for a new global decision making body to protect the
atmosphere.

• Such a body should be able to make decisions to prevent global warming, with
measures to ensure compliance, without waiting for unanimity among almost 200
governments.

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 Historical years
1989 - Hague Declaration on Environment

Consideration / Thoughts:
• The right to live is the right from which all right stem.

• Today, the very conditions of life on our planet are threatened by the severe
attacks to which the earth’s atmosphere is subjected.

• Global environment problems - particularly global warming and ozone layer

depletion.

• Because the problem is planet-wide in scope, solutions can only be devised on a

global level.

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 Historical years
1989 - Hague Declaration on Environment

• The three salient features – vital, urgent and global

• We are in a situation that calls for a new approach, through the development of
new principles of international law including new and more effective decision-
making and enforcement mechanisms.

• Most of the emissions that affect the atmosphere at present originate in the
industrialised nations and hence these nations can deal with this problem
effectively.

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 Historical years
1989 - Hague Declaration on Environment
• Financial institutions and development agencies, be they international or
domestic, must coordinate their activities in order to promote sustainable
development.

• The Hague Declaration reads as follows - ‘Without prejudice the international

obligations of each State, the signatories acknowledge and will promote the
following principles:

a) The principle of developing, within the framework of the United Nations, new
institutional authority, either by strengthening existing institutions or by creating a
new institution which, in the context of the preservation of the earth's atmosphere,
shall be responsible for combating any further global warming of the atmosphere and
shall involve such decision making procedures as may be effective even if, on
occasion, unanimous agreement has not been achieved.

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 Historical years
1989 - Hague Declaration on Environment
b) The principle that this institutional authority undertake or commission the necessary studies,
be logical information - including facilitation of access to the technology needed to develop
instruments and define standards to enhance or guarantee the protection of the atmosphere
and monitor compliance herewith;

c) The principle of appropriate measures to promote the effective implementation of and

compliance with the decisions of the new institutional authority, decisions which will be
subject to control by the International Court of Justice.

d) The principle that countries to which decisions taken to protect the atmosphere shall prove
to be an abnormal or special burden, in view, inter-alia of the level of their development and
actual responsibility for the deterioration of the atmosphere, shall receive fair and equitable
assistance to compensate them for bearing such burden. To this end mechanisms will have
to be developed;

e) The negotiation of necessary legal instruments to provide an effective & coherent

foundation, institutionally & financially, for aforementioned principles.

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 Historical years
1992 - Rio Declaration on Environment & Development

• Held in Rio-de-Janeiro, Brazil on 3rd June 1992

• About 20,000 delegates from 178 countries participated in it

• The conference discussed global and environmental problems very widely.

• It was the largest International Conference in the history.

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 Historical years
1992 - Rio Declaration on Environment & Development

Important points:
• 27 Principles were adopted in Declaration

• Adopted principle of Sustainable Development without further jeopardizing the

environment

• It stressed the importance to plan and eradicate the poverty. It also gave
importance to women, youth and indigenous people

• It gave importance to environmental legislation, EIA, economic, scientific ad

technological policy developments.

• The Convention aspired Developed countries should take measures for reducing
their CO2 and other Green Houses Gases.

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 Historical years
1992 - Rio Declaration on Environment & Development

Important points:
• Conference deeply concerned with Green House effect, Global warming,
Ozone layer depletion, Desertification, population explosion, technology
transfer, finance etc.

• It was agreed by all the participants for the forest development to make
necessary legislation to prevent the deforestation.

 Rio Declaration stated that ‘human beings are the centre of concern for
Sustainable Development. They are entitled to healthy and productive life in
harmony with nature.’

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 Historical years
2002 – World Summit on Sustainable Development

Held in Johannesburg, South Africa on August 2002

Objectives of the Summit:

The Summit aims to emphasize international commitment to achieving sustainable
development through:

1. Assessing implementation of Agenda 21;

2. Reviewing the challenges and opportunities to achieve sustainable

development;

3. Suggesting actions and required institutional and financial arrangements to

achieve sustainable development;

4. Identifying means to support institutional structures nationally and regionally.

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 Historical years
2002 – World Summit on Sustainable Development

Main Resolutions adopted by the Summit:

1. Political Declaration: Adopts the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable

Development, which is annexed to the present resolution;

• Challenges faced and commitment to sustainable development

• Multilateralism is the future: expresses need for more effective, democratic and
accountable international and multilateral institutions

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 Historical years
2002 – World Summit on Sustainable Development

Main Resolutions adopted by the Summit:

2. Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development

• Issues (Poverty, natural resources, production and consumption patterns,

health and sustainable development, sustainable development and
globalization etc.)

• Means of implementation

• Institutional Framework

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 Institutions

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 United Nations
Areas of contribution:

• To promote respect for human rights

• Protect the environment
• Fight disease
• Reduce poverty
• Define the standards for safe and efficient air travel
• Improve telecommunications
• Enhance consumer protection
• International campaigns against drug trafficking and terrorism
• Assist refugees
• Set up programmes to clear landmines
• Help to expand food production
• Lead the fight against AIDS.

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 United Nations
• FAO • UN-HABITAT • UNEP
• ICAFAO • UNICEF • UNESCO
• ICAO • UNRWA • UNFIP
• ILO • UPU • UNFPA
• IPCC • WFP • UNHCR
• ITU • WHO • UNHRC
• UNCTAD • WMO • UN-HABITAT
• UNDCP • ILO • UNICEF
• UNDP • IPCC • UNRWA
• UNEP • ITU • UPU
• UNESCO • UNCTAD • WFP
• UNFIP • UNDCP • WHO
• UNFPA • UNDP • WMO
• UNHCR
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United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

‘Voice of environment within United Nations Systems’

• Founded - UN Conference on the Human Environment, 1972 and its

headquarter is in Kenya

In order to promote wise use of Earths’ natural resources, UNEP acts as an

• Advocate,

• Educator,

• Catalyst, and

• Facilitator

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United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
Areas of work:

• Assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends

• Developing international agreements and national environmental instruments

• Strengthening institutions for the wise management of the environment

• Integrating economic development and environmental protection

• Facilitating the transfer of knowledge and technology for sustainable

development

• Encouraging new partnerships and mind-sets within civil society and the
private sector

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United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
Several Environmental Conventions Secretariat are hosted by UNEP:

• Ozone Secretariat

• The Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol

• The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

Fauna and Flora (CITES)

• The Convention on Biological Diversity

• The Convention on Migratory Species

• The Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous and

Other Wastes

• The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

• Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent*

* co-hosted with the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO

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 Research Organizations, Conventions &
Protocols

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 Global response – Climate Change

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1988

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), 1992

• Kyoto Protocol, 1997

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 Global response – Climate Change
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1988

• Established jointly by World Meteorological Organization (WMO) &

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1988

• IPCC is a inter-governmental body for members of WMO & UNEP

• It acts like a technical body whose role is to understand the risk of

human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for
adaptation and mitigation.

• IPCC assesses the scientific, technical and socio-economic

information on climate change in a comprehensive, objective, open
and transparent basis.

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 Global response – Climate Change

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1988

Three Working Groups:

1. Working Group I: assesses the scientific aspects of the climate system

and of climate change.

2. Working Group II: addresses the vulnerability of socio-economic and

natural systems to climate change, the negative and positive
consequences of climate change and options for adapting to them.

3. Working Group III: assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas

emissions and otherwise mitigating climate change.

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 Global response – Climate Change
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1988

Assessment reports:
1. First Assessment Report (1990): confirmed the scientific basis for concern
about climate change. This lead to the decision by the UN General
Assembly to prepare a UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). The Convention entered into force in March 1994.

2. Second Assessment Report (“Climate Change 1995”): published at 2nd

Conference of the Parties to UNFCCC & provided input to the negotiations
for the Convention’s Kyoto Protocol.

3. Third Assessment Report (“Climate Change 2001”): consists also of three

working group reports, which addresses a range of policy-relevant scientific
and technical questions.

4. Fourth Assessment Report (2007)

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 Global response – Climate Change
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC),
1992

• International treaty – ‘to begin to consider what can be done to reduce global
warming and to cope with whatever temperature increases are inevitable’

• Convention has universal membership with more than 191 countries ratified
and was entered into force from March, 1994.

• The Convention sets principles and an agenda for action with the ultimate
objective of stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere at safe
levels.

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 Global response – Climate Change
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCC), 1992

• Objectives of the Convention:

a. Gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions,

national policies and best practices

b. Launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse gas emissions

and adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial
and technological support to developing countries

c. Co-operate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate

change

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 Global response – Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol, 1997

• Based on objectives of UNFCC.

• The Protocol strengthens the convention, by committing parties to

individual legally-binding targets to reduce or limit GHGs emission.

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 Global response – Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol, 1997

Emission targets & Assigned amounts:

• The core commitment under the Protocol, requires each Annex I Party to
ensure that its total emissions from GHG sources listed in Annex A of the
Protocol over the commitment period do not exceed its allowable level of
emissions. (Annex A covers GHG emissions from the energy, industrial
processes, solvent and other product use, agriculture and waste sectors)

• The allowable level of emissions is called the Party’s assigned amount. Each
Annex B Party has a specific emissions target listed in Annex B, which is set
relative to its emissions of GHGs in its base year.

• The Annex B emissions target and the Party’s emissions of GHGs in the base
year determine each Party’s initial assigned amount for the Protocol’s five-year
first commitment period (2008–2012).

• This quantity is denominated in individual units, called assigned amount units or

AAUs, each of which represents an allowance to emit one metric tonne of
carbon dioxide equivalent.
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 Global response – Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol, 1997

Mechanisms:
• Kyoto mechanisms: Annex I parties can trade Kyoto Protocol units with other
parties to change the level of their allowed emission over the committed period.

1. Emissions trading (Example of regional trading system: European Unions’ ETS

i.e. Emissions Trading Scheme)

2. Joint implementation (JI): Mechanism by which one Annex I Party can invest in
a project that reduces emissions or enhances sequestration in another Annex I
Party, and receive credit for the emission reductions or removals achieved
through that project. The unit associated with JI is called an emission reduction
unit (ERU).

3. Clean development mechanism (CDM): Also a project-based mechanism.

However, emission credits from the CDM are generated from projects in non-
Annex I Parties. CDM credits may be generated from emission reduction
projects or from afforestation & reforestation projects.
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 Global response – Ozone layer depletion
UN Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone, 1985

• Important precedent as it was the first time that the nations agreed ‘in
principle’ to tackle a global environmental problem before its effects were
felt.

• Objectives of the Convention:

1. To protect human health and the environment against adverse effects

resulting or likely to result from human activities which modify or are likely to
modify the ozone layer;

2. to adopt agreed measures to control human activities found to have adverse

effects on the ozone layer;

3. to co-operate in scientific research and systematic observations;

4. to exchange information in the legal, scientific, and technical fields.

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 Global response – Ozone layer depletion
UN Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone, 1985

• Summary of Provisions:

1. Research
• concerning substances / processes that modify the ozone layer resulting
in effects on human health and environment,
• on alternative substances and technologies; and
• in systematic observation of the State of the ozone layer

1. Measures to control such activities

• Parties to cooperate in formulation and implementation of measures to
control activities that cause adverse effects through modification of the
ozone layer,
• Parties to cooperate in development of protocols for such purposes

1. Exchange of information
• Parties to exchange scientific, technical, socio-economic, commercial and
legal information relevant to the Convention,
• Cooperate in the development and transfer of technology and knowledge
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 Global response – Ozone layer depletion
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987

• The Protocol aims to reduce and eventually eliminate the emissions of

man-made ozone depleting substances, by stopping their production
and use, and has been modified or strengthened five times so far by
amendments.

• Production of the most damaging ozone-depleting substances was

eliminated, except for a few critical uses, by 1996 in developed countries
and should be phased out by 2010 in developing countries.

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 Global response – Ozone layer depletion
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987

Summary of the Protocol:

The Parties agree to control:
• Annual consumption and production of substances named in Annex A at the
1986 annual level; for substances in both groups I and II, of annex A
commencing 7 months and 36 months, respectively, after the protocol enters
into force;
(b) Annual consumption and production of the substances in Group I to be
reduced to fifty percent (50 per cent) of the 1986 annual level from 1 July 1988
(art. 2);
• Developing countries consuming less than 0.3 kg per capita of the controlled
substances, on the entry into force of the Protocol for them, may delay
compliance with paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 of article 2 of the Protocol by ten years,
provided in that period they do not exceed 0.3 kg per capita (arts. 2 and 5).
• A year after the entry of the Protocol into force Parties may not import the
substances from a non-party to the Protocol. After January 1993 developing
countries may not export such substances to a non-party (arts. 4 and 5).
• The Protocol which operates with the framework of the Vienna Convention for
the Protection of the Ozone layer, provides for measures of exchange of
technology and information, calculation of control levels and assessment and
review of the progress achieved.
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 Global response – Ozone layer depletion
The OzonAction Programme, 1991

UNEP’s effort to help to implement the Montreal Protocol and restore the
Earth’s ozone layer by phasing out ozone-depleting substances.

The key components of the Programme are:

• Information exchange to enable decision makers to take informed decisions

on policies and investments.

• Training and Networking on technology awareness and policy development

to assist stakeholders to use the information.

• Country Programmes and Institutional Strengthening for low volume

consuming countries to initiate implementation of phase-out.

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 Global response – Loss of biodiversity
Convention on Biodiversity, 1992

• Negotiated under UNEP

• UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 1992 –
opened for signature

Goals of CBD:
• To promote the conservation of biodiversity,
• The sustainable use of its components, and
• The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of
genetic resources.

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 Global response – Loss of biodiversity
Convention on Biodiversity, 1992

• Conference of Parties (COP) : Meeting of members of the Convention

• The Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice

(SBSTTA) : to provide the COP with "timely advice" relating to
implementation of the Convention.

• Working Group on Biosafety (BSWG)

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 Global response – Loss of biodiversity
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety adopted to address issue of genetically
modified organisms, 2000

• COP to Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a supplementary

agreement known as Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety on 29 January 2000

• Based on the ‘precautionary approach’ as per Principle 15 of the Rio

Declaration on Environment and Development.

• Main objective of the Protocol is to protect biological diversity from the

potential risks posed by living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from
modern biotechnology.

• To ensure – safe transfer, handling and use of LMOs, taking into

consideration the risk it might pose to biological diversity, human health and
also focuses on trans-boundary movements

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 Global response – Loss of biodiversity

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety adopted to address issue of genetically

modified organisms, 2000

• Establishment of ‘Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH)’ to facilitate the exchange

of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the
implementation of the Protocol.

Refer: http://www.cbd.int

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