Rural Environmental Problems

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Faculty of Planning & Public Policy

Centre for Environmental Planning & Technology (CEPT) University, Ahmedabad
CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4
 Presentation Structure
SECTIONS
 Background

 Factors causing rural environmental problems

 Case studies: Agricultural practices causing

environmental problems

 Lack of infrastructure

 Cattle grazing

 Livelihood activities

 Rural environmental problems due to extrinsic factors

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

“Most of us belong to urban areas, living in urban areas,
and most of the time studying urban areas……….”

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 “Environment is an outcome of various components of a system
and their interrelationships”

• Roads sections
• Street lighting
• Building type
• Mode of transportation
• Trip length
• Play grounds
• Pollution

“things are same but the nature of their

existence is different”
CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4
 Geographic
Geographic

Causes
Causes Other
Other Intrinsic
Intrinsic

Extrinsic
Extrinsic

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

  Intrinsic factors causing environmental problems in rural areas:
 Lack of infrastructure
 Agricultural activities
 Cattle grazing
 Livelihood activities

 Environmental problems due to extrinsic factors:

 Urban activities from surrounding areas
 Industrialization
 Regional scale infrastructure and new projects
 Natural disasters

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Rural environmental problems due to intrinsic factors:

 Agricultural activities:
 Ground water depletion
 Deforestation (for agriculture)
 Bio-safety
 Nutrition loss and soil salinity ingress
 Chemical run-off

 Lack of Infrastructure:
 Water borne diseases
 Vector borne diseases

 Cattle grazing:
 Desertification

 Livelihood activities:
 Deforestation (for fuel wood)

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Agricultural Practices causing
Environmental Problems

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Ground Water Extraction:

Agriculture
90.0%

Domestic
4.0%
Industry
6.0%

Source: Department of drinking water supply,

Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Jammu & Kashmir Ground Water Extraction:
Himachal Pradesh

Punjab
Chandigarh U.T.
Uttaranchal

 Heavy extraction of
Haryana
Delhi
Arunachal Pradesh
Sikkim
Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan
Bihar
Assam
Nagaland groundwater, especially
Meghalaya
Manipur

Madhya Pradesh
West Bengal
Jharkhand Tripura
for irrigation –
Mizoram
Gujarat
groundwater levels in
Chhattisgarh
Daman & Diu Orissa
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
Maharashtra
many districts have
fallen by more than 4m
Andhra Pradesh

Goa (@ > 20 cm/year)

Karnataka

during 1981-2000
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Pondicherry
Tamil Nadu
Kerala

Source: Department of drinking water supply,

Lakshadweep U.T.
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Desertification:

• Extensive and frequent cropping of agricultural areas

• Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides

• Shifting cultivation without allowing adequate period of recovery

• Inappropriate technology

• Inappropriate choice of crops / plants

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Desertification:

• Shift and burn or shifting cultivation

• North-eastern region (hills) – Jhum

• After number of cultivation and several years of cultivation, when the land
becomes unfertile or fallow, this process is adopted. Jhum is a cyclical
process, followed after certain number of years.

• When the land becomes unfit for cultivation, the farmers move on other land
and start agricultural activities on this new land.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Desertification:

Typical Jhum cycle includes:

• Clearing of land by burning natural vegetation

• Clearing burnt material

• Sowing of land
1

3 2

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Desertification:

• Logically, this practice was valid only during the days when human population
was very low and the pressure on land was almost negligible.

• The cycle duration during olden days varied between 50 to 60 years, but now it
has come down to 3 to 5 years (in Western Meghalaya) due to rise in population.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Desertification:
Name of Total Jhumia Jhumia Percentage of the Annual Area Percentage of Annual
District Population Families Population jhumia population under Jhum Jhum Area from the
(Rural) dependent dependent from the total rural in Sq. Km. total geographical
on jhum on jhum population area.
East Khasi 383027 721 3605 0.94 6.20 0.23
Hills

Ri-Bhoi 179630 4351 21755 12.11 27.40 1.53

West 260595 5374 26870 10.31 46.19 0.88
Khasi Hills

Jaintia 270669 1366 6830 2.52 11.74 0.31

Hills
East Garo 211652 13630 68150 32.20 117.15 4.50
Hills

West Garo 457422 18086 90430 19.77 155.45 4.19

Hills

South 90462 7900 39500 43.66 67.87 3.67

Garo Hills

TOTAL 18,53,457 51428 257140 13.87 442.00 1.97

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Desertification:

• In Manipur, the total forest cover has reduced from 79% of the total
geographical area of the state (in 1990) to 67.7%.

• Reasons for rapid removal of forest in state:

– of animals for 99% of the total forest damage
– Only 1% is due to felling of trees for fuel wood

• Number of families practicing Jhum - more than 83,000

• Increase in total area under Jhum cultivation - 1,832 sq.km. (in 1976);
3,600 sq.km. (in 1983) and 4,905 sq.km. (in 1990) as per reports of FSI
and NRSA.

• Largely affected districts - Senapati, Churachanpur, Ukhrul, Tamenglong

and Chandel Districts

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Desertification:
Issues:
• Destroys the protective and
productive vegetation for
immediate crop production. This
results in loss of soil and other
related damages.

• Soil erosion
BARREN WASTE LAND
• Loss of fertility

• Vegetative cover

• Loss of bio-diversity

• Habitat fragmentation

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Use of transgenic crops:

Groups of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs):

 Transgenic crops

• Recombinant Pharma Products

• Genetically Modified Microorganisms

• Transgenic animals

• Industrial Product

• Any others

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Use of transgenic crops in India:

• cry1Ac gene (MON 531 Event) by Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company Ltd.

• cry1Ab-Ac gene (GFM cry1A Event) by Nath Seeds Ltd.

• cry1Ac gene (JK Event 1) by J.K. Agri Genetics Pvt. Ltd.

• cry1Ac genes (MON 15985 Event) by Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company Ltd.

135 varieties of Hybrid crops have been approved and commercially released.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Source: Ministry of Environment & Forest, Government of India
Use of transgenic crops:
• Transgenic crops under development and field trials in 2006
S.No Crop Organization Transgene
1. Brinjal IARI, New Delhi cry1Aa and cry1Aabc
Sungro Seeds Ltd, New Delhi cry1Ac
Mahyco, Mumbai cry1Ac
2. Cabbage M/s. Nunhems India Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon cry1Ba and cry1Ca
3. Castor Directorate of Oilseeds Research (DOR), cry1Aa and cry1Ec
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad
4. Cauliflower Sungro Seeds Ltd, New Delhi, cry1Ac, cry1Ba and cry1Ca
M/s. Nunhems India Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon cry1Ac, cry1Ba and cry1Ca
5. Corn Monsanto, Mumbai cry1Ab gene (Mon 810 event)
6. Groundnut ICRISAT, Hyderabad chitinase gene from rice (Rchit)
7. Okra Mahyco, Mumbai cry1Ac, cry2Ab
9. Potato Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Shimla RB gene derived from Solanum bulbocastanum
10. Rice IARI, New Delhi cry1B-cry1Aa fusion gene
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University rice chitinase (chi11) or tobacco osmotin gene
Mahyco, Mumbai cry1Ac, cry2Ab
11. Tomato IARI, New Delhi antisense replicase gene of tomoto leaf curl virus

Mahyco, Mumbai cry1Ac

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4
 Cotton in India:

• Cotton cultivation in India – 8.9 million hectares (25% of global area)

• Avg. yield – 440 kg / ha (world average – 677 kg / ha)

• Production – 16% of the total world production

• Main cause of low productivity is about 162 types of pests that occur during
various stages of plant development (15 key ones)

• Annual loss due to pest – US $300 million

• Hence use of pesticides is very common and accounts for 1/3rd total cultivation
costs.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Cotton – Main Problems:

• Bollworm – cost US $235 million and accounts for more than 1/3rd of current
pesticides sale in India.

• To mitigate this yield loss incorporating insect resistance has become the
prime objective of cotton improvement efforts in India.

• But painfully no bollworm resistance is available in the germplasm.

• Thus the efforts got diverted to harness genetic engineering technology for
bollworm resistance in India in 1990s with the import of genetically modified
(GM) cotton and initiation of research programmes in national laboratories.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Use of transgenic crops – Bt Cotton:

• Bt cotton – genetically engineering natural cotton

• It is produced by inserting a synthetic version of a gene from naturally occurring

soil bacterium ‘Bacillus thuringiensis’, into cotton.

• This induces the plant to produce its own Bt toxin to destroy a major cotton pest
known as bollworm.

• The gene causes the production of Bt toxin in all parts of the cotton plant
throughout its entire life span.

• When the bollworm ingests any part of the plant, the Bt cotton toxin pierces its
small intestine and kills the insect.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Use of Transgenic Crops - Bt Cotton in India:

• Monsanto-Mahyco – got clearance for commercial planting of three

varieties of genetically engineered Bt cotton by Genetic Engineering
Approval Committee (GEAC) under Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF) on 26th March 2002.

• Field test clearance i.e no adverse effect

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Madhya Pradesh:

• The heart of the cotton-growing belt in India, witnessed total failure of

genetically engineered Bt cotton.

• The failure of the Bt cotton has devastated the farmers since they have spent
five to six times to buy seeds of Bt than the normal seed.

• The economics that was worked out by the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), Genetic Engineering Approval Committee and Monsanto-
Mahyco to promote this unsustainable technology has turned out to be
untrue.

• Bt cotton has been afflicted with the 'leaf curl virus' in the whole of northern
states of India. Dr Venugopal, ex-project coordinator of the Central Institute
for Cotton Research (CICR), Coimbatore told Business Line that while some
of the private hybrids and varieties released earlier were resistant to LCV, Bt
cotton was found susceptible to LCV.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Maharashtra:
• In Maharashtra, the adjoining state of Madhya Pradesh, the same story has
been repeated. In Vidarbha, primarily cotton growing area in Maharashtra, Bt
cotton crop has failed miserably. The first GE crop has been failed in 30,000
hectares in this district alone, completely devastating the already poor farming
community.

• The farmers of the area are demanding a compensation of Rs. 5000 million (500
crores rupees) to meet their economic loss lest they would take a legal action
against the Government of Maharashtra and Monsanto-Mahyco for allowing sale
of inadequately tested GM seeds.

• The Bt cotton crop in Vidarbha has been badly affected by the root-rot disease,
a disease of roots. It is believed that this disease is caused due to wrong
selection of Bt genes developed in America and brought to India.

• Many farmers have recorded only upto 50% germination of seeds and many
others had poor germination, which is suspected to be caused by both, drought
and poor seed quality. While other cotton varieties have also been adversely
affected by the drought, they report a failure rate of only around 20%.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Gujarat:

• In Gujarat there is a heavy infestation of bollworm on the Bt cotton in the

districts of Bhavanagar, Surendranagar and Rajkot.

• Initially Bt Cotton was found resistant to Bollworms in the early phase of plant
growth, but as soon as the formation of boll has started, the worms started
attacking them.

• It was also found that Gujarat is growing 18,000 hectares of Bt cotton more
than the permitted 12,000 hectares by the Government of India. (Gujarat
Samachar, 21st September 2002)

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Agriculture crop residue burning:

• 13.5 million hectares of rice-wheat cropping systems

• Currently feed over one billion people

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Agriculture crop residue burning:

• Intensification of agriculture in this region since the 1970's has rewarded

farmers with more than a two-fold increase in rice and wheat yields.

• Since last 20 years mechanization in farming is very common.

• Seed bed preparation and harvesting is done by particularly using farm

machinery.

• Wheat residue –valuable as can be used as animal feed, hence less difficulty in
management

• Rice residue – large and generally not used for feeding animals (except
Basmati), hence difficulty in management

• Residue / straw / stubble – burnt to enable tillage and seeding machinery to

work efficiently.
CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4
 Agriculture crop residue burning:

Example: Punjab

• 84% of the total geographical area of the State is cultivated

• Intensity of cropping is more than 184%

• 70 to 80 million tons of rice residue is burnt

• For easy management as well as disposal and to plant next crop in time,
burning of the residue is a very commonly adopted practice by the farmers.

• Advantages of burning residue (to framers) are: saving of diesel fuel, time, and
reduced pest and weed carryover into the next crop.

• 15 October, 2005 - almost all the leading newspapers of northern India

published reports on the incidence of a thick cloud of smog that enveloped
many parts of Punjab and Haryana.
CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4
Agriculture crop residue burning:

Study by NRSA, Hyderabad and

Ohio State University, USA

Objectives:

• To infer the extent of crop residue-

burnt areas using satellite data
during rice / wheat cropping
seasons

• Estimating emissions from such

burning practices

IRS-P6 AWiFS data (14 May 2005)

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Agriculture crop residue burning:

Classified image (14 May 2005) Classified image (10 October 2005)

5504 sq. km of wheat crop residue burning area 12,685 sq. km of paddy crop residue burning area
CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4
Agriculture crop residue burning:

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Agriculture crop residue burning:

Impacts on human health

• Reduced visibility,
• Irritation in eyes and throat
• Respiratory problems (bronchitis, laryngitis, distress and difficulty in breathing)

Impacts on environment
• Atmospheric pollution (air pollution)
• Loss of rich renewable soil rejuvenating organic resource
• Lot of organic material useful for maintaining soil fertility is also reduced to ashes
• Species of friendly insects are also eliminated
• The upper layer of soil becomes moisture-less because of the heat factor.

Impacts on globe
• Major source of GHG emissions

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Agriculture crop residue burning:
• District Magistrate (under section
144, CrPC) – has banned burning
of wheat stubble in entire district.
Special emphasis has been given
on banning this practice near the oil
dumps considering security and
safety aspects.

• Inspite of this, the farmers have

been burning the wheat stubble in
the fields adjacent to the oil dumps.

Burning of field adjacent to an oil dump near Phoos Mandi

village on the Bathinda-Mansa road tells a different story. • The lives of thousands of residents
Source: Tribune India (May 22, 2003), Photo Kulbir Beera. are at risk due to this practice.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Lack of Infrastructure

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

All the urban environmental problems arising due to inadequate
infrastructure in cities exist there in rural areas because often….

“there is no civic infrastructure”

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Drinking Water Quality:

 Chemical contaminants – Geogenic:

• Fluoride
• Arsenic
Geo-genic -- Geo + Genic
• Iron
Geo -- Earth
• Salinity
Genic -- Genesis -- Origin
• Nitrates

 Biological contaminants – Anthropogenic (human-induced):

• Bacteria/viruses

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Number of habitations affected by poor water quality

Source: Department of drinking water supply,

Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

Fluoride:
 36,988 habitations
 Sixteen States
 66 million people at risk

Legend

Severely affected

Moderately affected

Affected; severity not well known

Not affected or data not available Source: Department of drinking water supply,
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Arsenic:

 3136 habitations
 75 blocks in West Bengal
affected
 13.8 million people at risk

Source: Department of drinking water supply,

Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Poor Sanitation Facilities:

• Sanitation coverage of 1% & 27% for rural and urban areas respectively
in 1981
• As per 2001 Census – overall 36% (rural-22% )
• 64% of India defecates in open, resulting in 20,000 MT of excreta
everyday endangering drinking water sources

• Only 15% of primary schools have toilets

• Persistent high Infant Mortality Rate
• 4-5 lakh children below five years of age die due to diarrhea annually

Source: Department of drinking water supply,

Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Cattle Grazing

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Cattle grazing:
 Destruction of grasslands / forest areas due overgrazing of livestock
 Soil erosion

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Livelihood Activities

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4
 Rural Environmental Problems
Extrinsic Factors

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Rural environmental problems due to Extrinsic factors:

 Urban activities:
 Dumping of urban solid waste in agricultural fields
 Air and Noise pollution (Vehicles)
 Contamination of rivers (solid waste, bio-medical waste, sewerage)
 Deforestation

 Industrial activities
 Dumping of industrial waste and effluents
 Contamination of water bodies (chemical effluents)
 Air and Noise Pollution (Industrial activities & processes)

 Regional scale infrastructure projects:

 Road accidents
 Deforestation
 Agricultural land loss

 Natural Disasters:
 Agricultural loss
CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4
  The cumulative
magnitude of rural
environmental problems
is much much larger
than what it appears.

 In case of rural areas,

the population
concentration is lesser -
so the noise is
distributed and………
the rural environmental
problems are often
unheard.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4

 Thank You !

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Session no. 4