Dr: Azza Zaki

Introduction
To General
Embryology

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 The Human
Development
is a continuous process
that begins when an ovum
from a female is fertilized
by a sperm from a male.
Cell division, growth and
differentiation transform
the fertilized ovum
(zygote) into a
multicellular human being.
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 Developmental Periods
can be
divided
into:
prenatal
&
postnat
al
periods.

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 Normal somatic cells and primordial germ cells contain
46 single chromosomes (23 homologous pairs) and this
is called diploid number. 22 pairs of the chromosomes
are autosomes and one pair is sex chromosome; XX for
female and XY for male.
Gametes contain 23 single chromosomes
(haploid number).
 The male gamete (sperm) produced by
meiosis in the testis, contains 22 autosomes
and either an X or a Y chromosome
therefore, the male gamete determines the
genetic sex of the individual.
 The female gamete (ovum) produced by
meiosis in the ovary, contains 22 autosomes
and an X chromosome.
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 Chromosomes
are the carriers of genes.
 Each chromosome consists of two arms
separated by a centromere.
 During meiosis I, single chromosomes
undergo DNA replication, which
essentially duplicates the arms. This
forms duplicated chromosomes, which
consists of two sister chromatids attached
at the centromere
 Autosomes contain genetic
information for most human
characteristics.
 Homologous chromosomes:
 pair of similar autosomes
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 Gametogenesis
Definition: It is a process by which mature
gametes (sperms or ova) are formed from
primitive sex cells.
 Site: It takes place in the testis in male and
ovary in female.
Gametogenesis is divided into :
 Spermatogenesis : the formation of male
gametes (sperms).
 Oogenesis: the production of female gametes
(ova).
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Gametogenesis

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 Cell Division:1- Mitosis
 It is a process by which one somatic or primitive germ
cell divides giving rise to 2 daughter cells that are
genetically identical to parent cell.
 Each cell contains 46 chromosomes.
 Before somatic cell enters mitosis, each chromosome
replicates its DNA.
Mitosis is divided into phases:
A-Prophase:
Chromosomes begins to coil, contract and condense.
Each chromosome now consists of two parallel subunits,
chromatids, that are joined at the centromere.

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DNA Replication

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B-Prometaphase:
The chromatids become distinguishable.
C-Metaphase:
The chromosomes line up in the equatorial plane of
the cell.
D-Anaphase:
The centromere of each chromosome divides
longitudinally and each chromatid migrates to the
opposite pole of the cell.
E-Telophase:
The chromosomes uncoil and lengthen, the nuclear
envelope reforms and the cytoplasm divides.

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Various stages of mitosis. In prophase, chromosomes are visible as slender threads.
Doubled chromatids become clearly visible as individual units during metaphase.
Blue, paternal chromosomes; red, maternal chromosomes.
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 2-Meiosis
 It is a specialized process of cell division that
occurs only in reproduction. It is the cell division
that takes place in the germ (sex) cells to generate
male and female gametes, sperm and egg cells,
respectively. Meiosis requires two cell divisions, meiosis
I and meiosis II, to reduce the number of chromosomes
to the haploid number of 23.
 The first of which is a reduction division. The second
meiotic division looks like mitosis.
 The result is the formation of four gametes; each
contains half the number of chromosomes (23 single
chromosomes).

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 Meiosis I - Stages

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I

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 Meiosis II - Stages

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

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 Meiosis I
(1) First meiotic division:
- The 46 chromosomes in each cells arrange themselves in
23 pairs.
- The members of each pair move apart and migrate to the
opposite poles of the germ cell.
- The cytoplasm divides to form two cells each of which
contains 23 chromosomes.
a. DNA replication: forming a primary gametocyte (46
duplicated chromosomes, 4N).
b. Pairing of each two homologous chromosomes of the 46
duplicated chromosomes.
c. Chiasmata formation: where crossing over occurs (large
chromatid segments are exchanged, contributing to
genetic variability).
d. Arrangement: the 46 homologous chromosomes arrange
at the metaphase plate.
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e. Disjunction: the 46 chromosomes separate from each
other, centromeres do not split.
f. Cell division: two secondary gametocytes (23
duplicated chromosomes, 2N) are formed.
(2) Second meiotic division:
- Follows the first meiotic division.
- The two chromatids of each chromosomes move apart
to the opposite poles of the cells where they form a
chromosome.
- The cytoplasm then divides to form two cells each
contains 23 chromosomes.
Results of meiotic division: A primitive germ cells with
46 chromosomes gives four daughter cells each
containing 23 chromosomes. 1.Each germ cell
contains haploid no. of chromosomes.
2.Genetic variability is enhanced through cross over
which redistributes genetic material.
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 First and second meiotic divisions. A. Homologous chromosomes
approach each other. B. Homologous chromosomes pair, and each member
of the pair consists of two chromatids. C. Paired homologous chromosomes
interchange chromatid fragments (crossover). Note the chiasma. D. Double-
structured chromosomes pull apart. E. Anaphase of the first meiotic division.
F and G. During the second meiotic division, the double-structured
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chromosomes split at the centromere.
Male Genital System

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 1. Primary sex organs:
2 testes
 Enclosed in the scrotum.
 Each testis consists of about
250 lobules.
 Each lobule contains 1-3
seminiferous tubules.
 The seminiferous tubules
join together forming a
network called rete testis in
the mediastinum testis (the
posterior thick part of the
testicular capsule).
 Functions of testis:
formation of sperms & male
sex hormone (testosterone).
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2. Genital ducts:
a) Vasa efferentia:
 15-20 tubules connecting the rete testis to the
epididymis.
b) Epididymis:
 Comma-shaped organ posterior to the testis.

 It is formed of head, body & tail which is continuous with

the vas deferens.
c) Vas deferens:
 Enters the abdominal cavity where it forms a dilatation
called ampulla of the vas that lies behind the urinary
bladder.
d) Ejaculatory ducts:
 2, each is formed by the union of the ampulla & seminal
vesicle of one side.
 They pierce the prostate to open in the urethra.

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3.Glands:
1) Seminal vesicles:
 2, that lie lateral to the
ampulla of the vas.
2) Prostate:
 Large gland that
surrounds the beginning
of the urethra.
3) Bulbourethral glands:
 2, that open into the
penile urethra.
4.External genitalia: the
penis.
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 Spermatogenesis
Definition: It is the process
by which the
spermatogonia are
transformed into
spermatozoa (sperms).
Site: Seminiferous tubules
of the testis.
Onset: It begins at
puberty and continues till
very old age.
Duration: The time
required for a
spermatogonium to
develop into a mature
spermatozoon is about 64
days.
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Dr: Azza Zaki
 Steps
- The spermatogonium which is the primitive male sex cell
(46 chromosomes) divides by mitosis into 2 daughter
cells (type A and type B).
- The type A cell remains in contact with the basement
membrane, while the type B continues maturation and is
transformed into a larger cell called primary
spermatocyte (46 chromosomes).
- The primary spermatocyte undergoes the first
meiotic division thus giving rise to two secondary
spermatocytes each of which has 23 chromosomes.
- Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes the second
meiotic division thus giving rise to two spermatids each
of which has 23 chromosomes.
- The spermatids are transformed into complete sperms
by a process called spermiogenesis.

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 Type A spermatogonia, derived from the spermatogonial stem cell
population, represent the first cells in the process of spermatogenesis.
Clones of cells are established and cytoplasmic bridges join cells in each
succeeding division until individual
Dr:sperm are separated from residual bodies.
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 Spermiogenesis
It is the morphological transformation of
spermatids into spermatozoa (sperm). These
changes are:
1. The nucleus: enlarges and condenses to
form the head of the sperm.
2. The golgi apparatus: forms the acrosomic
cap.
3. Formation of neck, middle piece, and tail.
4. Shedding of most of the cytoplasm.
5. The cell membrane: encloses the whole
sperm.
.
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The sperms are ejaculated in the seminal fluid which
consists of secretions of the sex glands (prostate,
seminal vesicles and bulbo-urethral glands).
The fluid of an ejaculate measures about 3.5 ml. and
contains about 100 million sperms in each 1ml.
The sperms are genetically of two types: one carries X
chromosome while the other carries Y chromosome.
All ova are of one type and carry X chromosome

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Dr: Azza Zaki
Hormonal control of spermatogenesis:
1-Luteinizing hormone (LH):
secreted by the pituitary gland: it
binds to receptors on Leydig cells and
stimulates testosterone production,
which binds to Sertoli cells to promote
spematogenesis.
2- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH):
It binds to Sertoli cells stimulating
testicular fluid production.
Abnormal sperm:
They are frequent. Up to 10%have
defects.
The head or tail may be abnormal.
Spermatozoa may be giant or dwarf
and sometimes they are joined.
Sperms with morphologic Dr: Azza Zaki
abnormality
Dr: Azza Zaki