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LOAD
LOAD:- any external force acting upon a machine part
Dead
Live
Force
Suddenly applied
Impact
Stress () = F / A
F= R=
Strain () = l / L
h
l= L - l l
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or
= E
Example
1. A circular rod of diameter 16 mm and 500 mm long is subjected to a tensile force 40 kN. The modulus of elasticity for steel may be taken as 200 kN/mm2. Find stress, strain and elongation of the bar due to applied load.
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Stress-strain Diagram
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Working Stress
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the working stress or design stress.
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Factor of Safety
The ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
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1: A hollow steel tube is to be used to carry an axial compressive load of 160 kN. The yield stress for steel is 250 N/mm2. A factor of safety of 1.75 is to be used in the design. The following three class of tubes of external diameter 101.6 mm are available. Class Thickness Light 3.65 mm Medium 4.05 mm Heavy 4.85 mm Which section do you recommend? 2: A specimen of steel 20 mm diameter with a gauge length of 200 mm is tested to destruction. It has an extension of 0.25 mm under a load of 80 KN and the load at elastic limit is 102 KN. The maximum load is 130 KN. The total extension at fracture is 56 mm and diameter at neck is 15 mm. Find (i) The stress at elastic limit. (ii) Youngs modulus. (iii) Percentage elongation. (iv) Percentage reduction in area. (v) Ultimate tensile stress.
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P1 = Load carried by bar 1, A1 = Cross-sectional area of bar 1, 1 = Stress produced in bar 1, E1 = Young's modulus of bar 1,
P2, A2, 2, E2 = Corresponding values of bar 2, P = Total load on the composite bar, l = Length of the composite bar, and l = Elongation of the composite bar. We know that P = P1 + P2
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There fore,
l1 = l2
P = P 1 + P2
=
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l1 = l2
P = P1 + P2 = 1.A1 + 2.A2
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EX:3 A bar 3 m long is made of two bars, one of copper having E = 105 GN/m2 and the other of steel having E = 210 GN/m2. Each bar is 25 mm broad and 12.5 mm thick. This compound bar is stretched by a load of 50 kN. Find the increase in length of the compound bar and the stress produced in the steel and copper. The length of copper as well as of steel bar is 3 m each.
Ans:
Pc=16.67N Ps=33.33N l=1.52 mm
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EX:4 A central steel rod 18 mm diameter passes through a copper tube 24 mm inside and 40 mm outside diameter, as shown in Fig. It is provided with nuts and washers at each end. The nuts are tightened until a stress of 10 MPa is set up in the steel. Find out stress generated in copper tube.
Hint: Ps=Pc s As = c Ac
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forces acting on the cross-sections of the three portions. It is obvious that to maintain equilibrium the load acting on each portion is P only.
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Stress
1 = P/ A1 2 = P/ A2 3 = P/ A3
Strain
e1 = 1 / E e2 = 2 / E e3 = 3 / E
Extension
1 = P L1 / A1 E 2 = P L2 / A2 E 3 = P L3 / A3 E
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Total Elongation:
1 + 2 + 3 = [P L1 / A1 E] + [P L2 / A2 E] + [P L3 / A3 E]
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EX:5
The bar shown in Fig. 8.16 is tested in universal testing machine. It is observed that at a load of 40 kN the total extension of the bar is 0.280 mm. Determine the Youngs modulus of the material.
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Thermal Stresses
Stresses due to Change in Temperature Whenever there is some increase or decrease in the temperature of a body, it causes the body to expand or contract.
If the body is allowed to expand or contract freely, with the rise or fall of the temperature, no stresses are induced in the body. But, if the deformation of the body is prevented, some stresses are induced in the body. Such stresses are known as thermal stresses.
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l = Original length of the body, t = Rise or fall of temperature, = Coefficient of thermal expansion, Increase or decrease in length, l = l t
If the ends of the body are fixed to rigid supports, so that its expansion is prevented, then compressive strain induced in the body,
Thermal stress,
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l = l t
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Expansion prevented = tL
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EX:6: A steel rail is 12 m long and is laid at a temperature of 18C. The maximum temperature expected is 40C. (i) Estimate the minimum gap between two rails to be left so that the temperature stresses do not develop. (ii) Calculate the temperature stresses developed in the rails, if: (a) No expansion joint is provided. (b) If a 1.5 mm gap is provided for expansion. (iii) If the stress developed is 20 N/mm2, what is the gap provided between the rails? Take E = 2 105 N/mm2 and = 12 106/C.
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Poisson's Ratio
When a body is stressed within elastic limit, the lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain.
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Volumetric Strain
When a body is subjected to a system of forces, it undergoes some changes in its dimensions. The volume of the body is changed. The ratio of the change in volume to the original volume is known as volumetric strain. Volumetric strain, v = V / V ; V = Change in volume, ; V = Original volume. Volumetric strain of a rectangular body subjected to an axial force is given as
Volumetric strain of a rectangular body subjected to three mutually perpendicular forces is given by
v = x + y + z
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Bulk Modulus
When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses, of equal intensity, then the ratio of the direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is known as BULK MODULUS. It is usually denoted by K.
Bulk modulus,
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EX:7 A bar of 25 mm diameter is tested in tension. It is observed that when a load of 60kN is applied, the extension measured over a gauge length of 200 mm is 0.12 mm and contraction in diameter is 0.0045 mm. Find Poissons ratio and elastic constants E, G, K.
EX:8
A circular rod of 25 mm diameter and 500 mm long is subjected to a tensile force of 60 KN. Determine modulus of rigidity, bulk modulus and change in volume if Poissons ratio = 0.3 and Youngs modulus E = 2 105 N/mm2.
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EX:9 A 400 mm long bar has rectangular cross-section 10 mm 30 mm. This bar is subjected to (i) 15 kN tensile force on 10 mm 30 mm faces, (ii) 80 kN compressive force on 10 mm 400 mm faces, and (iii) 180 kN tensile force on 30 mm 400 mm faces. Find the change in volume if E = 2 105 N/mm2 and = 0.3.
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Stress concentration
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its crosssection, the simple stress distribution no longer holds good. This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress concentration. It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways, splines, surface roughness or scratches etc.
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Thank You
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