Propagation models

What are they for?

Regulatory vs. scientific issues.
Modes of propagation.
The models.
ITU Recommendations on Radiowave Propagation
 Modes of propagation &
propagation loss
• Free space
• Ground wave. Diffraction around a smooth earth.
Ground reflections. Effect of terrain.
• Ionospheric, including sporadic E
• Tropospheric: refraction, super-refraction and
ducting, forward scattering
• Diffraction over knife edge & rounded edge
• Atmospheric attenuation
• Variability & Statistics
 Free space propagation
• EIRP (watts) to pfd (w/m^2) = P/(4.pi.D^2)
– equivalent to (dBW –11 -20.log(D))
• EIRP (watts) to E (V/m) = sqrt(30.P)/D
• EIRP (kW) to E (V/m) = 173*sqrt(P)/Dkm
• Also: pfd (W/m^2)=E^2/Z0=E^2/(120.pi)
 Free space loss
• Note that EIRP(W) to pfd(W/m^2) is
frequency independent
• EIRP(W) to Prx(W) in isotropic antenna is:
Prx={Peirp/(4.pi.D^2)}*{lambda^2/(4.pi)}
I.e. isotropic to
isotropic antenna free-space loss increases
as frequency squared.
 Ground wave propagation
• Most relevant for low frequencies (<30
MHz)
• Depends on ground constants (conductivity,
permittivity)
• Various ITU recommendations: ITU-R
P.368 etc. Program GRWAVE available
from ITU web pages
 Ionospheric propagation
• Most relevant up to about 30 MHz
• Many modes of propagation: a complicated
topic.
• Sporadic E can be important up to about 70
MHz. (ITU-R P.534)
• Highly variable
 Tropospheric
• Variations of radio refractive index
• “Normal” change with height causes greater than
line-of-sight range. Often taken into account by
assuming increased radius for the earth – e.g. (4/3)
• Temperature inversions can cause ducting, with
relatively low attenuation over large distances
beyond the horizon
• Small scale irregularities are responsible for
forward scatter propagation.
• Rain scatter can sometimes be a dominant mode.
 Obstacles
• Terrain features, and buildings, usually
attenuate signals. (NB in some
circumstances knife edge diffraction can
enhance propagation beyond the horizon)
• The OKUMURA-HATA model calculates
attenuation taking account of the percentage
of buildings in the path, as well as natural
terrain features.
Is an Obstruction Obstructing?
Fresnel ellipsoids and Fresnel zones
In studying radiowave propagation between two points A and B, the
intervening space can be subdivided by a family of ellipsoids, known
as Fresnel ellipsoids, all having their focal points at A and B such that
any point M on one ellipsoid satisfies the relation:
λ
AM + MB = AB + n (1)
2
where n is a whole number characterizing the ellipsoid and n =1 corresponds
to the first Fresnel ellipsoid, etc., and λis the wavelength.
As a practical rule, propagation is assumed to occur in line-of-sight, i.e. with
negligible diffraction phenomena if there is no obstacle within the first Fresnel ellipsoid.

The radius of an ellipsoid at a point between the transmitter and the receiver is
given by the following formula:
1/ 2
n λd1 d 2 
Rn =   (2)
d1 + d 2 
or, in practical units:
1/ 2
 n d1 d 2 
Rn = 550   (3)
(d1 + d 2 ) f 
where f is the frequency (MHz) and d1 and d2 are the distances (km) between transmitter
and receiver at the point where the ellipsoid radius (m) is calculated.
An approximation to the 0.6 Fresnel clearance path length
The path length which just achieves a clearance of 0.6 of the first Fresnel zone
over a smooth curved earth, for a given frequency and antenna heights h1 and h2,
is given approximately by:
D f ⋅ Dh
D06 = km (30)
D f +Dh
where:
Df : frequency-dependent term
=0.0000389 f h1 h 2 km (30a)
Dh : asymptotic term defined by horizon distances

= 4.1( h1 + h 2 ) km (Radio Horizon) (30b)

f  : frequency (MHz)
h1, h2 : antenna heights above smooth earth (m).
Knife Edge diffraction
FIGURE 6
Geometrical elements

(For definitions of θ, α1 , α2 , d, d1 , d 2 and R, see § 4.1 and 4.3)

θ>0

d1 h>0 d2
α1 α2

a)

α1 α2
h<0
d1 d2
θ<0

b)
 FIGURE 7
Knife-edge diffraction loss

–2

8
J(ν) (dB)

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
ν
0526-07
 Atmospheric attenuation
• Starts becoming relevant above about 5 GHz
• Depends primarily, but not exclusively on water
vapour content of the atmosphere
• Varies according to location, altitude, path
elevation angle etc.
• Can add to system noise as well as attenuating
desired signal
• Precipatation has a significant effect
 Specific attenuation due to atmospheric gases

10 2

2 H2O

10

2
Specific attenuation (dB/km)

10– 1

2
Total
Dry air Dry air
10 – 2

H 2O
10 – 3
2 5 2 5 2 3.5
1 10 10 2
Frequency, f (GHz)
0676-05
Pressure: 1 013 hPa
Temperature: 15° C
Water vapour: 7.5 g/m3
 Propagation models
• The ITU recommendations give many
“approved” methods and models
• Two popular methods are are the
Okumura-Hata
and the
Longley Rice
 FIGURE 18
2 000 MHz, land path, 10% time
120

110

100

90

80
Maximum (free space)
70

µ V/m)) for 1 kW e.r.p. 60

50
h1 = 1 200 m

40

30
Field strength (dB(

20
h1 = 10 m
10

–10

–20

Transmitting/base
–30
antenna heights, h1
1 200 m
–40
600 m
300 m
–50
150 m
75 m
–60
37.5 m
20 m
–70
10 m

–80
1 10 100 1 000
Distance (km)

50% of locations
h2: representative clutter height 1546-18
 Okumura-Hata method
E = 69.82 −6.16 log f +13.82 log H1 + a(H2) −(44.9 −6.55 log( H1)(log d)b

where:
E : field strength (dB(µV/m)) for 1 kW e.r.p.
f : frequency (MHz)
H1 : base station effective antenna height above ground (m) in the range 30 to 200 m
H2 : mobile station antenna height above ground (m) in the range 1 to 10 m
d : distance (km)
a(H2) = (1.1 log f −0.7) H2 −(1.56 log f −0.8)
b = 1 for d ≤20 km
b = 1 +(0.14 +0.000187 f +0.00107 H1′ ) (log [0.05d])0.8
for d > 20 km
where:

H1′ = H1 / 1 +0,000007 H12

 
 Longley-Rice model
TRANSMISSION LOSS PREDICTIONS FOR
TROPOSPHERIC COMMUNICATION
CIRCUITS

• Longley Rice has been adopted as a standard by the FCC

• Many software implementations are available
commercially
• Includes most of the relevant propagation modes [multiple
knife & rounded edge diffraction, atmospheric attenuation,
tropospheric propagation modes (forward scatter etc.),
precipitation, diffraction over irregular terrain,
polarization, specific terrain data, atmospheric
stratification, different climatic regions, etc. etc. …]
 NRAO: TAP model
(SoftWright implementation with the “Terrain Analysis
Package”

Notes on The Prediction of Tropospheric Radio Transmission Loss Over Irregular Terrain
(the Longley-Rice Model) propagation in the Terrain Analysis Package (TAP).
The Longley-Rice model predicts long-term median transmission loss over irregular
terrain relative to free-space transmission loss. The model was designed for frequencies
between 20 MHz and 40 GHz and for path lengths between 1 km and 2000 km.
...
This implementation is based on Version 1.2.2 of the model, dated September 1984. Note
also that the version 1.2.2 implemented by SoftWright does not utilize several other
corrections to the model proposed since the method was first published (see A. G.
Longley, "Radio propagation in urban areas," OT Rep. 78-144, Apr. 1978; and A. G.
Longley, "Local variability of transmission loss- land mobile and broadcast systems," OT
Rep., May 1976).

Technical Foundation
...
 Problems with models
• All models have limitations: e.g. Longley Rice doesn’t
include ionosphere, so limited applicability at lower
frequencies. Some skill is needed in choosing the right
model for the right circumstances.
• Accuracy is limited. Different models can give different
answers.
• May need a statistical interpretation
• Need good input data (e.g. terrain models)
• Any model needs fairly universal acceptance, to avoid
legal arguments. Acceptance may be more important than
accuracy.
• What is the height of a radio telescope?
 Where does this leave us?
• In spite of the difficulties, propagation models
have come a long way.
• We can’t live without them.
• The best guide we have to whether a given
terrestrial transmission will cause interference to a
radio telescope.
• The best guide we have as to whether a given size
of coordination zone will be adequate.