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Basic Terms
Ontological: concerning itself with what exists - a 17th century coinage for the respective branch of philosophical metaphysics Epistemological: concerning itself with the theory of knowledge origin of knowledge, the role of experience in generating knowledge, the function of reason in generating knowledge, the relationship between knowledge and certainty, and the criteria according to which we decide on the validity and tenability of statements
During the first part of the seminar, we looked at the ontology of I.R., at the respective world views linked to particular Grand Theories. Classic Example of different ontologies: the First Great Debate betweeen Idealism and Realism (or between a Hobbesian & a Lockean/Kantian/Grotian view of IR) * * * The Second Great Debate between Traditionalism and Scientism looks at the epistemology of I.R. How can we be sure that the statements we formulate are correct ??
REALISM
NEOREALISM
Traditionalism
Qualitative, historicalhermeneutical , common-sensual
Scientism
Quantitative (deductively-) empirical, nomological
GLOBALISM
Literaturtipp
Klaus Knorr/James N. Rosenau (eds.): Contending Approaches to International Politics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP 1969 Martin Hollis/Steve Smith: Explaining and Understanding in International Relations. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1990
Traditionalism I
scientific/cognitive interest Scientific advice to those who govern, and political education of those who are governed; evaluating comments, norm-based opinions, and recommendations for action regarding present political decisions on the basis of respective scientific research results
Traditionalism II
Problem statement: striving for an understanding of politics on the basis of an insight into and of a knowledge of historical-social developments and processes
Traditionalism III
specific view of the object of enquiry a) Politics is a specific social form of action full of sense and values an art which can be learned on the basis of historical examples. Historical and social phenomena can be clearly distinguished from natural phenomena; thus, they are not susceptible to scientific explanations taking the form of if - then statements b) b) International Politics competitive zero-sum-game for power and influence in an anarchic world of states, characterized by the security dilemma and the role of states as primary (if not near-exclusive) international actors
Traditionalism IV
methods of analysis: hermeneutic, ideographic, descriptive, or normative approaches typical for the arts and historical sciences validity criteria of scientific statements: Common Sense the view that we know most, if not all, of those things which ordinary people think they know and that any satisfactory epistemological theory must be adequate to the fact that we know such things Value relationship: scientific statements are characterized by explicit dependence on values
Traditionalism V
Concept of Theory:
a) Constitution of a general theory of political action based on the regular appearance of phenomena and forms of international politics over time, formulating recommendations to political decisionmakers for action in comparable situations Formulation of ideal types based on historical comparisons which help with the understanding and classification of concrete historical and political phenomena
b)
What is Realism II
Of the threads that make up the Realist school, the most important ideas include: International relations are amenable of objective study. Events can be described in terms of laws, in much the way that a theory in the sciences might be described. These laws remain true at all places and times. The state is the most important actor. At times the state may be represented by the city-state, empire, kingdom or tribe. Implicit in this is that supra-national structures, sub-national ones and individuals are of lesser importance. Thus the United Nations, Shell, the Papacy, political parties, etc, are all relatively unimportant. The first corollary is that the international system is one of anarchy, with no common sovereign. A second corollary is that the state is a unitary actor. The state acts in a consistent way, without any sign of divided aims.
Realistic Premiss
International politics is a zero-sum game: one actors gains (power, status, ressources) are all or other specific actors losses Conflict rules the game, military force serves as a latent or open means to decide the game in one or more parties favour International influence results from the actual use or the threatened use of power, defined as actual or potential military and/or economic capabilities of action
Literaturtipp
Benjamin Frankel (ed.): Roots of Realism. London: Frank Cass 1996 Stefano Guzzini: Realism in International Relations and International Political Economy. The Continuing Story of a Death Foretold. London: Routledge 1998 Christoph Rohde: Hans J. Morgenthau und der weltpolitische Realismus. Wiesbaden: VS-Verlag 2004
Scientism
Scientism is a philosophical position that exalts the methods of the natural sciences above all other modes of human inquiry. Scientism embraces only empiricism and reason to explain phenomena of any dimension, whether physical, social, cultural, or psychological.
Drawing from the general empiricism of The Enlightenment, scientism is most closely associated with the positivism of August Comte (1798-1857) who held an extreme view of empiricism, insisting that true knowledge of the world arises only from perceptual experience. Comte criticized ungrounded speculations about phenomena that cannot be directly encountered by proper observation, analysis and experiment. Such a doctrinaire stance associated with science leads to an abuse of reason that transforms a rational philosophy of science into an irrational dogma. It is this ideological dimension that we associate with the term scientism. Today the term is used with pejorative intent to dismiss substantive arguments that appeal to scientific authority in contexts where science might not apply.
Scientism (2)
Epistemological scientism lays claim to an exclusive approach to knowledge. Human inquiry is reduced to matters of material reality. We can know only those things that are ascertained by experimentation through application of the scientific method. And since the method is emphasized with such great importance, the scientistic tendency is to privilege the expertise of a scientific elite who can properly implement the method.
Behavioralism
The so-called behavioral revolution took hold in academic disciplines and grantmaking bodies during the 1940s, placing emphasis on individual level psychological variables and quantitative methods.
Cf. article on Behaviorism by George Graham, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, under http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism
Behavioralism: Characteristics
One of the most "influential" definitions of behavioralism has been David Easton's list of its characteristics: 1) search for regularities, even with explanatory and predictive value, 2) verification with testable propositions, 3) self-conscious examination for rigorous techniques, 4) quantification for precision when possible and relevant, 5) keeping values and empirical explanations analytically distinct, 6) systematization as an intertwining of theory and research, 7) pure science preceding the application of knowledge, and 8) integration of the social sciences (Easton 1962: 7-8; Easton 1965: 7).
Literaturtipp
David Easton: The New Revolution in Political Science.. The American Political Science Review, Vol. 63, No. 4, Dez.1969., 1051-1061. Falter, Jrgen W.: Der "Positivismusstreit" in der amerikanischen Politikwissenschaft, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1982 Falter, J. W./Honolka, H./Ludz, U.: Politische Theorie in den USA. Eine empirische Analyse der Entwicklung von 1950 bis 1980. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1990
Positivism I
Axioms: correspondence theory of truth, methodological unity of science, value-free scientific knowledge Premisses: Division of Subject and Object, Naturalism deduction of all phenomena from natural facts, Division of statements of facts and statements of values
Positivism II
Consequences:
Postulated existence of a real world (object) independent from the theory- loaded grasp of the scientist (subject); identification of facts in an intersubjectively valid observation language independent from theories; methodological exclusion of idiosyncratic characteristics and/or individual (subject) identities assures objective knowledge of an intersubjectively transferable character
Positivism III
Postulate of like regularities in the natural as well as the social world, independent of time, place, and observer, enables the transfer of analytic approaches and deductivenomological processes of theory formulation from the field of the natural to the field of the social sciences & to the analysis of social/societal problems Knowledge generated on the basis of positivist research approaches and methodologies is limited to the objective (i.e. empirical) world. Statements and decisions on values are outside the sphere of competence of science.
Positivism IV
Further Consequences:
Concept of Reason predicated on the purposeful rationality/rationality of purpose of instrumental action aiding the actor to technically master her/his environment Rationalisation of societal (inter-)action by its predication on planned/plannable means- endrelationships, technical (or engineering) knowledge, depersonalisation of relationships of power and dominance, and extension of control over natural and social objects (rationalisation of the world we live in)
Positivism V
Theory regards itself as problem-solving theory, which accepts the institutions and power/dominance relationships of a pre-given reality as analytical and reference frameworks, and strives for the explanation of causal relationships between societal phenomena; its aim is the elimination of disturbances and/or their sources in order to insure friction-less action/functioning of social actors International politics is regarded as the interaction of exogeneously constituted actors under anarchy, the behaviour of which is as a rule explained by recourse to the characteristics or parameters of the international system (top-down explanation)
Positivism VI
hypotheses
logical deduction
predictions
empirical observation
either
or
theory amended
theory correct
Literaturtipp
A.J.Ayer: Logical Positivism. New York: Free Press 1959 Rudolf Haller: Neopositivismus. Eine Historische Einfhrung in die Philosophie des Wiener Kreises. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft 1993
Addendum: Inhaltlich-perspektivische Differenzen von klassischem Realismus und Neorealismus Gemeinsame Prmisse: Verhalten von Staaten ber Zeit und Raum zeigt
mehr Gemeinsamkeiten als Unterschiede
Realismus
Dominanz des Akteurs
Neorealismus
Dominanz des internationalen Systems Akteursverhalten bestimmt durch systemische Grundannahme: strukturelle Anarchie
Akteursverhalten bestimmt durch anthropozentrische Grundannahme: Machtstreben Charakteristische Eigenschaften, Situationsdefinitionen und Zielsetzungen der Akteure eines Systems bestimmen dessen Verhaltensergebnisse (bottom-up-view)
Struktur des Systems (Verteilung der Macht unter den Akteuren) bestimmt das Interaktionsverhalten der Akteure und die Verhaltensergebnisse ( top-down-view)
Realismus
Primat des in Kategorien von Macht definierten Nationalinteresses
Neorealismus
Primat der Sicherheit
Erwerb, Vermehrung, Demonstration von Macht als Zweck der Aussenpolitik des Akteurs
Selbsthilfe
Sicherung der nationalen Souvernitt als Voraussetzung des berlebens des Akteurs in einer feindlichen Umwelt
Herstellung und Sicherung des Gleichgewichts im System als Voraussetzung des berlebens der Akteure unter Anarchie
Literaturtipp
Kenneth N.Waltz: Theory of International Politics. Reading/Mass.: Addison-Wesley 1979 Carlo Masala: Kenneth N. Waltz. Einfhrung in seine Theorie und Auseinandersetzung mit seinen Kritikern. Baden-Baden: Nomos 2005 Benjamin Frankel (ed.): Realism: Restatement and Renewal. London: Frank Cass 1996