Solid Waste MGMT

Handling Solid and Hazardous Waste in the Urban Areas
By A.K. Sengupta National Professional Officer Sustainable Development & Healthy Environment World Health Organization, India Country Office, New Delhi January 2009
Handling Solid and Hazardous Waste in the Urban Areas 15 January 2009
The First Municipal Act of 1842, gave the responsibility for municipal solid waste (MSW) management in India to urban local bodies (ULBs). This was further reiterated under the 74th Constitutional Amendment of 1992. In 1995, a plague in Surat brought the criticality of this function back into focus and led to a series of reform measures in the sector since then.
Hazardous Wastes ( Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 and Amendment Rules, 2003 notified by Ministry of Environment and Forests also includes the following :
Bio-medical wastes covered under the Bio-Medical Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 made under the Act;
Wastes covered under the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 made under the Act; and
The Lead acid batteries covered under the Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules , 2001 made under the Act.
List of Hazardous Wastes

1. Petrochemical processes and pyrolytic operations 2. Drilling operation for oil and gas production
3. Cleaning, emptying and maintenance of 4. Petroleum refining/re-refining of used petroleum oil storage tanks including ships oil/recycling of waste oil 5. Industrial operations using minerals/synthetic oil ass lubricant in hydraulic systems or other applications 7. Primary production of zinc/lead/copper and other non-ferrous metals except aluminium 9. Secondary production of lead 11. Production of primary and secondary aluminium 13. Production of iron and steel including other ferrous alloys (electric furnaces;steel rolling and finishingh mills; Coke oven and by product plant)
6. Secondary production and/or use of zinc
8. Secondary production of copper
10. Production and/or use of cadmium and arsenic and their compounds 12. Metal surface treatment, such as etching, staining, polishing, galvanising, cleaning, degreasing, plating, etc 14. Hardening of steel

15. Production of asbestos or asbestoscontaining materials 17. Production of acids 19. Production of phenol 21. Production an/or industrial use of paints, pigments, lacquers, varnishes, plastics and inks 23. Production and/or industrial use of glues, cements, adhesive and resins 25. Industrial production and formulation of wood preservatives 27. Production or industrial use of materials made with organosilicone compounds 16. Production of caustic soda and chlorine 18. Production of nitrogenous and complex fertilizers 20. Production and/or industrial use of solvents 22. Production of plastic raw materials
24. Production of canvas and textiles 26. Production or industrial use of synthetic dyes, dye-intermediates and pigments 28. Production/formulation of drugs/pharmaceuticals

29. Production, use and formulation of pesticides including stock-piles 31. Electronic Industry 33. Disposal of barrels/containers used for handling of hazardous wastes/chemicals 35. Purification process for organic compounds/solvents 30. Leather tanneries 32. Pulp and Paper Industry 34. Purification processes for air and water 36. Waste treatment processes, e.g. incineration, distillation, separation and concentration techniques
Municipal Solid Waste Management
Solid Waste Generation

Solid household waste consists mainly of non-hazardous waster such as paper and plastic packaging material., glass, food scraps and other residues, and garden materials. However, it generally also contains small quantities of hazardous substances such as paints, medicines, solvents, cleaning materials and batteries, This makes waste management more difficult and increasing the environmental risks that waste presents (UNEP, 1993)
Solid Waste Generation (Contd)

Solid household wastes often become intermixed with wastes of similar character from shops, offices, and small scale industrial units working with materials such as metals, timber and textiles. The resulting waste streams are commonly called municipal waste. Management of this waste can be classified into distinct phases: generation and storage; collection and handling; recycling and reuse; transfer and transportation, and treatment and disposal.
Examples of municipal waste composition (%) of selected cities

UK Delhi India Kathmandu Wuhan Nepal China
Vegetables
Dust, ash, other materials Plastic, leather, rubber Textiles
25
18 7 3
49
38 1 3
67
10 <0.5 7
16
78 0.5 0.5
Glass
Metals Paper Wood
n.a.: data not available
10
8 29 n.a.
1
1 7 n.a.
1
5 7 3
0.5
0.5 2 2
Source: based on data from Rushbrook & Finnecy, 1988

The production of household and municipal waste continues to increase worldwide, both in absolute and per capita terms. Estimated typical municipal waste production per capita increases with rising average income.
Typical quantities of municipal waste production per capita Type of country Waste generation (kg/capita/day) High-income countries Middle-income countries 0.8 to 3.0 0.5 to 0.9
Low-income countries
Source: based on data from UNCHS, 1996b
0.3 to 0.6
In a developing country city, waste production may amount to only 0.3 kg/person/day in a poor neighbourhood, but up to 1.0 kg/person/day in a wealthy neighbourhood (UNCHS, 1996b) In India we produce less than 0.5 kg / person /day in most of the cities. About 65% of urban municipal solid waste is biodegradable and can be composted to generate organic manure. 25% is recyclable, only 10% is not recyclable and therefore needs to be sent for dumping or for incinerators
Access to solid waste collection

In a developed countries close to 100% of the population has access to municipal waste services. In many developing countries only a small proportion of the population has such access and thus a mere 30% of wastes are collected (UNCHS, 1996). In low-income neighbourhoods there may be no collection at all/ Instead, it must be undertaken by individuals or local communities (WHO, 1996). Some community waste collection and management systems have proven very efficient. In fact, they are often the only satisfactory means available for waste collection and management
Disposal and treatment

In developed countries the tendency is to dispose of municipal wastes in sanitary landfills or by incineration . In developing countries incineration is rarely undertaken because of its expense. Instead, collected wastes are disposed of in controlled or uncontrolled (unconfined) landfills, or, more frequently, dumped on the street, in backyards or drainage ditches, buries in gardens, or burned in open fires.
If wastes are not disposed of adequately or remain untreated, microbiological and/or chemical pollutants may affect land and air, or enter surface and groundwaters. Such pollution is rarely assessed since many sources and pollutants are often involved. Moreover, assessment is difficult because the environmental distribution and fate of such pollutants are highly complex.
Recycling
Recycling is an essential element of sustainable waste handling. In India it has been practised for decades, largely for economic reasons, but increasingly in response to environmental considerations. The best known examples include reuse of scrap metal, reuse of metals, paper recycling and compositing of organic waste. Conversion of waste products into products for use in other sectors is also growing. In some countries including India, construction materials for roads and buildings are increasingly made from recycled waste products such as incinerators ashes and shredded automobile tyres. In India and other developing countries recycling often takes the form of scavenging, but this exposes waste handlers to numerous health hazards. However, since it also provides income for many poorer social groups its abolition and prohibition will prove difficult.
Health risks of solid waste

Solid wastes can come into direct or indirect contact with human beings at several stages in the waste cycle. The groups at risk are therefore broad and numerous and include: - the population of un-served areas, - especially pre-school children; - waste workers; - workers in facilities that produce infectious and toxic material; - people living close to waste disposal facilities, and - populations whose water supplies have become polluted due waster dumping or leakage from landfill sites. Additionally, industrial dumping of hazardous waste that has become mixed together with household solid waste can expose populations to chemical and radioactive hazards.
The health risks of uncollected solid waste are obviously most severe for those actually living in unserved areas. Notably, people are at risk of injury, intoxication or infection since they are likely to be exposed to uncollected waste in streets or at unofficial dump sites. Uncollected organic domestic wastes in particular pose serious health risks since they ferment, creating conditions favourable to the survival and growth of microbial pathogens, and especially if they become intermixed with human excreta due to poor sanitation. Organic wastes also provide feeding stock and a natural environment for insects, rodents and other animals which are potential carriers of enteric pathogens. Uncollected solid wastes can also obstruct storm-water run-off, resulting in flooding or creation of stagnant water bodies which become habitats and breeding places for water borne vectors of tropical diseases.
Groundwater used for drinking purposes for instance, can become chemically or microbiologically polluted if wastes are disposed of in or near water sources. Direct dumping of untreated solid wastes in rivers, lakes or seas can also result in accumulation of toxic substances in the food-chain due to their uptake by plants and animals. Infectious diseases spread by poorly-managed solid waste are listed in table below.
Selected infectious diseases associated with solid waste

Type of waste
Bacteria
Infected sharp waste Staphyloccosis Streptococcosis Tetanus Waste-generated infected dust Anthrax
Diseases by cause
Virus
Hepatitis B Hepatitis C AIDS Trachoma* Conjunctivitis Pneumonia Pneumonia Dengue Yellow fever Plague Rabies Malaria filariasis Schistosomiasis Leishmaniasis Hydatidosis Mycosis
Parasite/fungus
Vectors living or breeding in Waste-generated ponds Stray animals and rodents Feeding on waste
* by chlamydia Source: based on data from UNEP/IETC, 1996

Disposal of Solid Waste and Risks

Landfills are a source of fires, dust , smoke, noise and disease vectors such as insects, rodents and stray animals, and Incinerators cause air pollution through emission of particulates, toxic chemicals and heavy metals such as cadmium, lead mercury and zinc. Waste treatment and disposal sites should be controlled and located at an adequate distance from human settlements, and the boundries of landfills sites confined and sealed so that drinking-water sources are protected from infiltration of leachate or run-off. Waste workers dealing with recycling of waste that has a high metal or chemical content may experience toxic exposures.
Disposal of Solid Waste and Risks (Contd)

In developing countries scavengers who comb waste sites for articles that can be recycled and reused may sustain injuries and come into direct contact with infectious dusts and disease vectors such as rats and flies. Scavengers and their families are also at risk because they often build their homes very close to, if not on, landfill sites. As well as being exposed to a wide variety of waste health hazards they are also frequently subject to social and economic abuses from waste recycling traders. Health surveys show that their health status is very poor and their life expectancy far below national averages.
Occupational hazards associated with waste handling

INFECTIONS
skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste, and from infected wounds Eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure to infected dust, especially during landfill operations zoonoses resulting from bites by wild or stray animals feeding on wastes enteric infections transmitted by flies feeding on wastes
CHRONIC DISAESES
incineration operators especially are at risk of chronic respiratory diseases, including cancer resulting from exposure to dust and hazardous compounds
ACCIDENTS
musculoskeletal disorders resulting from the handling of heavy containers wounds, most often infected resulting from contact with sharp items poisoning and chemical burns resulting from contact with small amounts of hazardous chemical waste mixed with general waste burns and other injuries resulting from occupational accidents at waste disposal sites, or from methane gas explosion at landfill sites.
Source: adapted from UNEP, 1996c
Electronic Waste
Handling Electronic Waste

Electronic waste or E-waste is the most rapidly growing waste problem in the world. It is a crisis not only of quantity but also a crisis born from toxic ingredients such as the lead, beryllium, mercury, cadmium, and brominated-flame retardants that pose both an occupational and environmental health threat. But to date, industry, government and consumers have only taken small steps to deal with this looming problem. Rather than having to face the E-waste problem squarely, the United States has made use of a convenient, and until now, hidden escape valve-exporting the crisis to developing countries of Asia.

The open burning, acid baths and toxic dumping pour pollution into the land, air, and water and exposes the men, women, and children of Asias poorer peoples to poison. Informed recycling industry sources estimate that between 50 to 80 percent of the wastes collected for recycling are not recycled domestically at all, but very quickly placed on container ships bound for destinations like China. A free trade in hazardous wastes leaves the poorer peoples of the world with an untenable choice between poverty and poison- a choice that nobody should have to make E-waste exports to Asia are motivated entirely by brute global economics. Market forces, if left unregulated, dictate that toxic waste will always run downhill on an economic path of least resistance. If left unchecked, the toxic effluent of the affluent will flood towards the worlds poorest countries where labor is cheap, and occupational and environmental protections are in adequate. A free trade in haz-ardous wastes leaves the poorer peoples of the world with an untenable choice between poverty and poison- a choice that nobody should have to make.

What is it?
E-waste encompasses a broad and growing range of electronic devices ranging from large household appliances such as refrigerators, air conditioners, hand-held cellular phones, personal stereos, and consumer electronics to computers. E-waste has become a problem of crisis proportions because of two primary characteristics: E-waste is hazardous- E-waste contains over 1,000 different substances, many of which are toxic, and creates serious pollution upon disposal. E-waste is generated at alarming rates due to obsolescence- Due to the extreme rates of obsolescence, E-waste produces much higher volumes of waste in comparison to other consumer goods.
How much waste is in 500 million computers? Plastics Lead 6.32 Billion Pounds 1.58 Billion Pounds
Cadmium Chromium Mercury
3 Million Pounds 1.9 Million Pounds 632, 000 Pounds

The circuit board recycling process involves either open burning of the circuit boards or using acid stripping. Both processes first involve removal of the chips, condensers and capacitors from the boards. Very often child labor is employed to separate the parts from the circuit boards utilizing wire cutters and pliers. After some pin straightening , some of the IC chips and components are old for reuse. The items that are not worthy of re-use go directly to the outdoor fires to reduce them to metals. Following the chip extraction and burning, the boards themselves are burned in an open pit to retrieve the rest of the solder and copper. After burning, the ashes are floated in water to remove lighter ash. Another process involves utilizing nitric acid on the circuit boards to remove gold and platinum. Both methods, open burning and acid baths, are fraught with occupational health risks as well as risks to the people living in the surrounding community

India generates 146, 000 tonnes of e-waste
As many as 146,000 tonnes of e-waste are generated per year in India, the Lok Sabha was informed by the then Forest and Environment Minister A. Raja. He added that about 29,000 tonnes of e-wastes are generated alone in the four metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. Raja said there are more than 3,500 units engaged in electronic production. This consists of 11 central public sector units with 31 manufacturing establishments, 46 units in state public sector, about 500 units in orgainised private sector and more than 2,900 units in small scale sector in the country. He informed that the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has undertaken a study for the preparation of Guideline document for environmentally sound recycling of e-waste.
Mercury Waste
Major Consumers Chlor-alkali industry
Instrument manufacturing
- Clinical
Thermometers - BP Monitors - Barometers - Other instruments
Electrical apparatus manufacturing

- Electric switches - Electric lamps - Fluorescent lamps - Mercury vapor lamp
Others
- Batteries - Cosmetics
Health Problems related to Mercury

Neuro toxicant: paralysis, insomnia, impaired vision, emotional instability Nephro toxicant : affects kidney Pummo toxicant: affects respiratory systems and lungs Gastro toxicant Transcontinental and global transport: Release into the air and ultimately accumulates in Lake Bottom sediments Bio-accumulates: It transforms into methyl mercury and accumulates in fish tissue. Bio-magnifies: Cannot be destroyed Passes the placental, the blood-brain and the skin barrier Populations especially susceptible foetus, the newborn, and young children
Health-care Sources of Mercury Medical waste incineration, open burning, burning in barrels, gasification, pyrolysis etc Thermometers Sphygmomanometers Dental amalgam Gastrointestinal tubes Laboratory chemicals Pharmaceutical products Electrical appliances
Occupational Safety
Low risk perception High spill rates In-house calibration No accident reporting Handled carelessly, no protective gear
Permissible concentration for occupational exposure by NIOSH 0.05 mg/m3

At 24C, a saturated atmosphere of mercury vapour would contain 360 times greater mercury than permissible levels Vapour pressure of mercury is 10 atm; doubles with every 10oC rise
Kanchrapara Case Study for Municipal Waste Management
Profile of Kanchrapara
In Kanchrapara, the inadequacy of financial resources with the Municipality necessitated the development of a low cost service delivery model that could be implemented by the people themselves. Location: Municipality town located about 48 km from Kolkata in North 24 Parganas district of West Bengal Area: 3.07 sq. km. (plus 6 sq. km. under the management of Indian Railways) No. of Wards: 19 (plus 5 under the management of Indian Railways) Population (2001): 126000 (of which approximately 84,000 is under the Kanchrapara Municipality) BPL population: Approximately 20 percent Quantity of solid waste generated: Approximately 40 MT per day
Institutional Arrangements
Kanchrapara Municipality
Municipal SWM committee
Conservancy department
Ward SWM committee
Private contractor (proposed) - Compost marketing
Sector (150-180 households): 1 supervisor + 1 worker + Rickshaw
Introduction of door-to-door collection (DTDC) of garbage against payment of a service charge

Constitution of SWM committees at the municipal and ward levels to oversee the SWM function Substitution of community dustbins by mobile trailers Introduction of segregation at source to enable effective treatment of waste
Monthly Service Charges

Category
Residents Families below poverty line (BPL) Poorest 5 percent families of BPL population Commercial establishments Shops Restaurants and hotels
Collated by WSP-SA from data provided by the Municipality
Charges (in INR)

10.00 4.5 Free
4.5 45-90
Implementation Strategy
Launched in December 2002, the program was implemented on a ward wise basis, with the ward of the Vice Chairman, Kanchrapara Municipality, serving as the pilot. Towards end- January 2003, the Municipal Board adopted the necessary guidelines to run SWM committees at the municipal and ward levels. By March 2005, 15 wards (out of 19) had adopted the program1 To overcome the initial reluctance to pay service charges, the new SWM system was operated free of charge for the first two months in each ward. No willingness to pay study, however, was done to arrive at the tariff structure. Instead, a brief consultation exercise using local wisdom led to the formulation of the differentiated rate structure. The program did not meet with any resistance from the Municipality staff, since there were no retrenchments under the program
1 The remaining four were undertaking groundwork (for example, surveys, awareness meetings) to adopt the program
Implementation Strategy
The most important quality of the decision making process was that both the Chairman and Vice Chairman were keen to improve the situation and willing to commit municipal funds for the purpose, with the latter acting as the program champion Public communication: For each ward, the initial awareness creation was done primarily through group meetings in the ward. Once the system was introduced in a particular ward, a campaign mode was adopted, using posters, school competitions, and even the singing of songs by schoolchildren
Operating System
Each ward (average population : 4,500) is split into four or six sectors; each sector consists of 150-180 Waste Generating Units (WGUs) like households, shops, restaurants and schools. Each sector is assigned one tricycle van accompanied by one waste collector and one supervisor. Every morning, segregated garbage is collected from households and dumped in the trailers stationed at specified points in the ward. In the afternoon, a tractor tows away trailers ( up to 10-12 trailers per tractor) to the dump site where the waste is loaded (segregated biodegradable waste goes directly into the compost chambers).
Operating System
The waste collector does the physical work of collection, while the supervisor is responsible for monitoring the work (that is, ensuring that all units under her charge are covered), collecting monthly charges, maintaining records, and encouraging segregation at source. This system is operational 365 days a year. Every family has been given two buckets for storing biodegradable and non- biodegradable waste- by the ward level SWM committee. The tricycles have provision for transporting the waste in segregated form. Trailers are also either partitioned or two trailers are provided at a spot, to store the biodegradable waste separately. Mixed waste provided by some WGUs is sorted by the waste collector on the tricycle van itself.
Operating System
Dumpsite (~7 acres)
Rickshaws
Trailer
Towed by tractor
Compositing of Biodegradable waste
Bagged and sold
Ward-level SWM committee Operational management, hiring workers, maintaining accounts Awareness creation Collection of charges All O & M costs for DTDC
KMs conservancy department Transportation , treatment, disposal Street and drain cleaning All capex costs O&M costs for storage, transportation, treatment, and disposal DTDC costs for first two months
Private contractor (proposed)
Operating System
The Municipality plans to provide stands for workers, to facilitate the transfer of waste from tricycle vans into trailers. Waste generators are required to inform the ward committee about construction debris, which then gets it collected for a charge.
Cleaning of main roads and drains is managed by the KM conservancy department. Streets inside the wards, though cleaned by KM workers, are managed by ward committees.
Treatment and Disposal

The town has a treatment-cum-dump site located on the outer edge of the town. It covers an area of approximately seven acres, of which about half is allocated for compositing operations (started in early 2004). A multi-chamber framed structure is provided for compositing segregated biodegradable waste (approximately three- four tons per day) using an EM (Effective Microorganisms) solution3. The compositing method was initially developed and tested with the assistance of a research candidate from Jadavpur University (Kolkata).
Issues
System is dependent on volunteers from the community, which can be a constraint at times. Limited engagement of rag pickers. No organized attempt at recycling. Weak disposal system. Lack of coordination with other government authorities, namely the Railways (which manages the other half of the town).

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Handling Solid and Hazardous Waste in the Urban Areas

List of Hazardous Wastes

6. Secondary production and/or use of zinc

8. Secondary production of copper

List of Hazardous Wastes

List of Hazardous Wastes

Municipal Solid Waste Management

Solid Waste Generation

Solid Waste Generation (Contd)

Examples of municipal waste composition (%) of selected cities

Source: based on data from Rushbrook & Finnecy, 1988

Access to solid waste collection

Disposal and treatment

Health risks of solid waste

Selected infectious diseases associated with solid waste

* by chlamydia Source: based on data from UNEP/IETC, 1996

Disposal of Solid Waste and Risks

Disposal of Solid Waste and Risks (Contd)

Occupational hazards associated with waste handling

Source: adapted from UNEP, 1996c

Handling Electronic Waste

Handling Electronic Waste

Handling Electronic Waste

Handling Electronic Waste

Cadmium Chromium Mercury

3 Million Pounds 1.9 Million Pounds 632, 000 Pounds

Handling Electronic Waste

Handling Electronic Waste

Major Consumers Chlor-alkali industry

Thermometers - BP Monitors - Barometers - Other instruments

Electrical apparatus manufacturing

Health Problems related to Mercury

Permissible concentration for occupational exposure by NIOSH 0.05 mg/m3

Kanchrapara Case Study for Municipal Waste Management

Municipal SWM committee

Ward SWM committee

Private contractor (proposed) - Compost marketing

Sector (150-180 households): 1 supervisor + 1 worker + Rickshaw

Introduction of door-to-door collection (DTDC) of garbage against payment of a service charge

Monthly Service Charges

Charges (in INR)

Dumpsite (~7 acres)

Bagged and sold

Treatment and Disposal

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