Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Women and Leadership

Leadership Theory and Practice, 3/e
Peter G. Northouse, Ph.D. William Kritsonis, PhD Presenter

SAGE Publications

2003 Jan Krieger

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview
Women and Leadership Perspective Overview of Research Trends
Can Women be leaders?
Do female and male leaders differ in their behavior and effectiveness? Why do so few women reach the top?

How Does the Women and Leadership Approach Work?

SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 2

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Women and Leadership Approach Description

Perspective
Gender (learned beliefs) - Has significant impact on the degree to which males and females are expected to:
Behave differently Be treated differently Be valued differently

The Gendered Workplace Gender affects assignment of organizational responsibilities and most decisions regarding: Career progress Resources Salaries Power Authority Appropriate work behavior

Implications of a two-category (male/female) set

Cognitive distortions arise Implies those within each category are identical One category valued as superior to the other
SAGE Publications

2003 Jan Krieger

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Can Women Be Leaders?
People Employed in U.S. in 2001
135M People Employed

Women over 20 Yrs

58 % 46.6 %
0 20 40 60 80 100

For Each Dollar Earned by Men in 2001

$1.00 $0.80 $0.60

$1.00 $.76 $.66

Women Managers

Sources: Womens Bureau, 2001; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2002

$0.40 $0.20 $0.00 Women Overall Women Managers Men

Sources: Womens Bureau, 2001; Garofoli , 2002

SAGE Publications

2003 Jan Krieger

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Can Women be Leaders?
Fortune 500 Top Management Positions in 2002 15.7%
Corporate Officer General Counsel CFO Top Earning Slots "Clout Titles" Corp BOD

84.3 % 83.9 % 92.9 % 90.1 % 94.8 % 87.6 %

16.1% 7.1%

5.2%
9.9 % 12.4 %

20
Source: Catalyst, 2002

40 Men

60 Women

80

100

SAGE Publications

2003 Jan Krieger

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends Can Women be Leaders?

Women Who Own & Run Their Own Companies
U.S. House U.S. Senate

Government Leadership Positions

14%
13% 12%
0 Men 50 Women

86%
87% 88%
100

20.4 M

44%

5%

3%

Small Owned Venture Govt Businesses by Capital Contracts in U.S. Women to to Women Women

Govenors

SAGE Publications

2003 Jan Krieger

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Can Women be Leaders?
Women of Differing Racial & Ethnic Backgrounds Holding Top Management Positions

Women Overall Women of Color

12.5% 8.7% 1.3% 1.3%

Fortune 500 Executive Positions

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Source: Scott, 2001

1995
SAGE Publications

2000
2003 Jan Krieger 7

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Can Women be Leaders?

2001
Women Overall Women of Color African Am. Latino Am. Asian Am.
8.4% 17% 18.1% 2% = 178 positions

Fortune 1000 Corporate Board Positions

74%

0
Source: Catalyst, 2002

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Primary Organizational Benefits in Developing and Promoting Women Enhanced Productivity Competitive Advantage Financial Performance
SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 8

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Do Female and Male Leaders Differ in Their Behavior and Effectiveness?
Meta-Analyses/Literature Review Results Over a 15-Year Period
160 Studies of sex-related differences in leadership (Eagly & Johnson, 1990)
Women use a more participative or democratic style and a less autocratic or directive style than men Both men and women emphasized task accomplishment when organization dominated numerically by members of their own sex or leadership role is viewed as gender congruent

82 Studies measuring leader effectiveness (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995)

No difference in overall effectiveness between male and female leaders
SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 9

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Do Female and Male Leaders Differ in Their Behavior and Effectiveness?
Meta-Analyses/Literature Review Results Over a 15-Year Period
Male and female leaders evaluated differently (e.g., Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992; Dreher & Cox, 1996)
Impacts
Management training Assignments Mentors Promotion

Female and male leaders evaluated favorably when they used a democratic leadership style (stereotypically feminine) Females evaluated unfavorably when they used a directive or autocratic style (stereotypically male) Women were devalued when they worked in male-dominated environments and when the evaluators were men
SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 10

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Do Female and Male Leaders Differ in Their Behavior and Effectiveness?
Meta-Analyses/Literature Review Results Over a 15-Year Period Conditions of effectiveness (Eagly et al., 1995)
While overall effectiveness did not differ for male and female leaders, comparisons of leader effectiveness favored men more under three conditions:
In a male-dominated setting (particularly the military) When a high percentage of subordinates were male When the role was viewed as more congenial to men in terms of:
Self-assessed competence Interest Low requirements for cooperation with high requirements for control

Effectiveness comparisons favored women to the extent these conditions were reversed With the exception of the military, womens effectiveness increased as they moved up the hierarchy and as cooperation rather than control was required
SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 11

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Do Female and Male Leaders Differ in Their Behavior and Effectiveness?
Meta-Analyses/Literature Review Results Over a 15-Year Period
Patterns of women leaders effectiveness (Micco, 1996; Women May, 1997)
Advanced Teamware, Inc., study of 915 middle-senior level managers
In 31 areas examined, women outperformed men in 28 (i.e., conflict resolution, work quality, adaptation to change, productivity, idea generation, & motivation of others) Men handled their frustration and coped with pressure better; both groups scored equally on delegating authority

Saville & Holdworth study of 3,000 managers

Women emphasized planning and organizing work and an empathic approach Women placed less emphasis on winning at all cost
SAGE Publications
12

2003 Jan Krieger

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Do Female and Male Leaders Differ in Their Behavior and Effectiveness?
Meta-Analyses/Literature Review Results CONCLUSIONS
Women leaders are apt to be more participative and less autocratic, a pattern that is well suited to 21-century global organizations The range of behavior viewed as appropriate for women leaders is more restricted because of mens negative evaluation of women demonstrating stereotypically masculine behaviors

Outside of the military, women were seen as more effective in middle management positions and in settings requiring cooperation with a balance of men and women
SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 13

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Overview of Research Trends

Why Do so Few Women Reach the Top?
CEO Explanations
Pipeline Theory - Women have not been in managerial positions long enough for natural career progression to occur (Heilman, 1997; Ragins et al., 1998)

Women lack general management or line experience (Ragins et al., 1998)

Women themselves are the issue; they are less suited to executive demands than men (Heilman, 1997) Women are unavailable to fill executive positions because few are sufficiently qualified (Morrison, 1992) Women lack self-confidence (Morris, 1998)
SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 14

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Common Barriers to Womens Advancement The Glass Ceiling

Organizational Barriers
Higher standards of performance and effort
Inhospitable corporate culture Promotion decisions based on homophily (gender similarity) Ignorance/inaction by male CEOs and silent majority male peers Imbalance of adequate recognition & support with excessive difficulties Lack of definitive development opportunities
SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 15

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Common Barriers to Womens Advancement The Glass Ceiling

Interpersonal Barriers
Male prejudice, stereotyping, preconceptions Lack of emotional and interpersonal support Exclusion from informal networks Lack of white male mentors
SAGE Publications

Personal Barriers
Lack of political savvy Work-home conflict

2003 Jan Krieger

16

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

How Does the Women and Leadership Approach Work?

Strengths Criticisms Application
SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 17

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Strengths
Understanding gender dynamics in leadership and uncovering and recognizing unconscious patterns and beliefs will foster workplace and societal improvements Considering the sex of leaders and employees can yield insights within the major leadership theoretical frameworks (e.g., contingency theory) Research on gender dynamics in leadership has contributed to broader conversations regarding what values are most important and what the good life really means in the U.S. society

SAGE Publications

2003 Jan Krieger

18

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Criticisms
A disadvantage of a singular focus on individuals sex is that it can become the only or primary attribute identifying them, rather than one of a myriad of attributes that influence their worldview and experience Research on sex and gender differences has fostered an implicit assumption that members of each category are identical in race, sexual orientation, age, etc.

SAGE Publications

2003 Jan Krieger

19

Chapter 12 - Women and Leadership

Application
The research findings on women and leadership can be applied to a number of organizational issues:
Retention of talented women Developing effective leaders Barriers to womens advancement

The findings on womens effectiveness and the choices required for advancement can inform women of what they need to do to develop as leaders

The findings on gender dynamics in leadership can inform men of the subtle patterns enacted in the everyday workplace that impede fairness and excellence
SAGE Publications
2003 Jan Krieger 20