What is an ACID?

pH less than 7 Neutralizes bases + Forms H ions in solution Corrosive-reacts with most metals to form hydrogen gas Good conductors of electricity

Common Acids
HCl - hydrochloric- stomach acid H2SO4- sulfuric acid - car batteries HNO3 nitric acid - explosives HC2H3O2- acetic acid - vinegar H2CO3-carbonic acid sodas H3PO4- phosphoric acid -flavorings

What is a BASE?
pH greater than 7 Feels slippery Dissolves fats and oils Usually forms OH ions in solution Neutralizes acids

Common Bases

NaOH- sodium hydroxide (LYE) soaps, drain cleaner Mg (OH)2 - magnesium hydroxide-antacids Al(OH)3-aluminum hydroxide-antacids, deodorants NH4OH-ammonium hydroxide- ammonia

Preparation of solutions
Always add acid to a large volume of water. The solution may then be diluted with additional water to make one liter. Because mixing acid with water is an exothermic reaction, be sure to use glassware capable of withstanding the temperature change (e.g., Pyrex or Kimax). Sulfuric acid is particularly reactive with water. Add the acid slowly to the water while stirring.

MAKING MOLAR (M) SOLUTIONS

A 1 Molar solution (1M) contains 1 mole of solute dissolved in a solution totaling 1 liter. If you use water as the solvent, it must be distilled and deionized. Do not use tap water. A mole is the molecular weight (MW) expressed in grams (sometimes referred to as the gram molecular weight (gMW) of a chemical). Thus, 1 M = 1 gMW of solute per liter of solution.

Molarity of a percentage solution

Using 70% concentrated Nitric Acid as an example: 70% Nitric Acid means that 100 grams of this acid contains 70 grams of HNO3. To calculate the Molarity of a 70 wt. % Nitric Acid the number of moles of HNO3 present in 1 liter of acid needs to be calculated. Knowing the density of the acid to be 1.413 g/mL, we can calculate the weight of 1 L of 70% HNO3 to be 1413 grams. Knowing that the solution is 70 wt % would then allow the number of grams of HNO3 to be calculated: (0.700)(1413g) = 989.1 grams HNO3 per liter. Dividing the grams of HNO3 by the molecular weight of HNO3 (63.01 g/mole) gives the number of moles of HNO3 / L or Molarity, which is 15.7 M.

The Molarity Calculator Equation: The following equation is used for calculating Molarity where the concentration is given in wt %: [(% x d) / MW] x 10 = Molarity Where: % = Weight %; d = Density (or specific gravity); MW = Molecular Weight (or Formula Weight). The above equation can then be used to calculate the Molarity of the 70 wt % Nitric Acid: [(70 x 1.413) / 63.01] x 10 = 15.7 M

Normality of an acid or base from its Molarity

There is a relationship between normality and molarity. Normality can only be calculated when we deal with reactions, because Normality is a function of equivalents. Normality refers to compounds that have multiple chemical functionalities, such as sulfuric acid, H2SO4. 1 M solution of H2SO4 will contain only one mole of H2SO4 in 1 liter of solution, but if the solution is titrated with a base, it will be shown to contain two moles of acid. This is because a single molecule of H2SO4contains two acidic protons (H+ Ions). Thus, a 1 M solution of H2SO4 will be 2 N. The 'Normality' of a solution is the 'Molarity' multiplied by the number of equivalents per mole.

Percent

Solutions

Mass percent solutions are defined based on the grams of solute per100 grams of solution. Example: 20 g of sodium chloride in 100 g of solution is a 20% by mass solution. Volume percent solutions are defined as milliliters of solute per 100 mL of solution. Example: 10 mL of ethyl alcohol plus 90 mL of H2O (making approx. 100 mL of solution) is a 10% by volume solution.

Neutralization of an acid and a base

Introduction and Definitions: A salt is any compound which can be derived from the neutralization of an acid and a base. The word "neutralization" is used because the acid and base properties of H+ and OH- are destroyed or neutralized. In the reaction, H+ and OH- combine to form HOH or water molecules. A neutralization is a type of double replacement reaction. A salt is the product of an acid-base reaction and is a much broader term then common table salt as shown in the first reaction.

The following are some examples of neutralization reactions to form salts.

a. HCl + NaOH --> NaCl + HOH b. H2SO4 + 2 NH4OH --> (NH4)2SO4 + 2 HOH c. 2 NaOH + H2CO3 --> N2CO3 + 2 NaOH
To the solution will be neutralized when the number of moles of H+ equals the number of moles of OH-.

Stomach Antiacids:

Antiacids are supposed to decrease the amount of hydrochloric acid in the stomach by reacting with excess acid. They are used in the treatment of gastric hyperacidity and peptic ulcers. Some of the ingredients in antacids are: Magnesia (MgO), milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)2, calcium carbonate (CaCO3), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), dihydroxyaluminum sodium carbonate (NaAl(OH)2CO3), aluminum hydroxide gel (Al(OH)3). Several of these will habe top be recognized as Bronsted bases.

Buffer
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A buffer is a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base that resists changes in pH in both directionseither up or down. A buffer works best in the middle of its range, where the amount of undissociated acid is about equal to the amount of the conjugate base. One can soak up excess protons (acid), the other can soak up excess hydroxide (base).

Buffer Capacity
The buffer capacity is a measure of the strength of the buffer, its ability to maintain the pH following addition of strong acid or base. The greater the concentrations of the buffer components, the greater its capacity to resist pH changes. The closer the component concentrations are to each other, the greater the buffer capacity.

The relation between buffer capacity and pH change.

When strong base is added, the pH increases least for the most concentrated buffer.

This graph shows the final pH values for four different buffer solutions after the addition of strong base.

Buffer Range
The buffer range is the pH range over which the buffer is effective. Buffer range is related to the ratio of buffer component concentrations. [HA] The closer - is to 1, the more effective the buffer. [A ] If one component is more than 10 times the other, buffering action is poor. Since log10 = 1, buffers have a usable range within 1 pH unit of the pKa of the acid component.

Preparing a Buffer in Real Life

To prepare 1.00 L of buffer containing 0.100 M tris at pH 7.60. When we say 0.100 M tris, we mean that the total concentration of tris plus tris H+ will be 0.100M.

Procedure:
1. Weigh out 0.100 mol tris hydrochloride and dissolve it in a beaker containing about 800 mL water and a stirring bar. 2. Place a pH electrode in the solution and monitor the pH. 3. Add NaOH solution until the pH is exactly 7.60. 4. Transfer the solution to a volumetric flask and wash the beaker and stirring bar a few times. Add the washings to the volumetric flask. 5. Dilute to the mark and mix.

P.202

Buffer capacity
Buffer capacity measures how well a solution resists changes in pH when acid or base is added. The greater the buffer capacity, the less the pH changes.

The amount of H+ or OHthat buffered solution can absorb without a significant change in pH

Titration of acetic acid with sodium hydroxide

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pH 7
pKa = 4.76

_ _ _ _ _ Buffering range: only small pH changes result from addition of base or acid

_
_ 50% dissociation

equiv. of NaOH added

1.0

Ionization of acetic acid:

Resisting changes both ways
23

OH

H2O

Acetic acid (CH3COOH)

HAc

Ac

Acetate

(CH3COO )

H+

Insights for the Future

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pH control is important, as many enzymes have a narrow range in which they function optimally. Buffering capability is essential for the wellbeing of organisms, to protect them from unwelcome changes in pH. For example, your stomach is about pH 1, yet the adjacent portion of your intestine is near pH 7 Many compounds and macromolecules in addition to bicarbonate can serve a buffering functionproteins comprise one of the major classes.