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WORKING CAPITAL
Current assets Current liabilities It measures how much in liquid assets a company has available to build its business. A short term loan which provides money to buy earning assets. Allows to avail of unexpected opportunities. Positive working capital is required to ensure that a firm is able to continue its operations and that it has sufficient funds to satisfy both maturing short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses. The management of working capital involves managing inventories, accounts receivable and payable and cash.
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WORKING CAPITAL
An increase in working capital indicates that the business has either increased current assets (that is received cash, or other current assets) or has decreased current liabilities, for example has paid off some short-term creditors.
Decisions relating to working capital and short term financing are referred to as working capital management. Short term financial management concerned with decisions regarding to CA and CL. Management of Working capital refers to management of CA as well as CL. If current assets are less than current liabilities, an entity has a working capital deficiency, also called a working capital deficit. These involve managing the relationship between a firm's short-term assets and its short-term liabilities.
The goal of working capital management is to ensure that the firm is able to continue its operations and that it has sufficient cash flow to satisfy both maturing short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses. Businesses face ever increasing pressure on costs and financing requirements as a result of intensified competition on globalised markets. When trying to attain greater efficiency, it is important not to focus exclusively on income and expense items, but to also take into account the capital structure, whose improvement can free up valuable financial resources
Active working capital management is an extremely effective way to increase enterprise value. Optimising working capital results in a rapid release of liquid resources and contributes to an improvement in free cash flow and to a permanent reduction in inventory and capital costs, thereby increasing liquidity for strategic investment and debt reduction. Process optimisation then helps increase profitability.
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The fundamental principles of working capital management are reducing the capital employed and improving efficiency in the areas of receivables, inventories, and payables.
Investment in CA represents a substantial portion of total investment. Investment in CA and level of CL have to be geared quickly to changes in sales.
Total Current assets Where Current assets are the assets that can be converted into cash within an accounting year & include cash , debtors etc. Referred as Economics Concept since assets are employed to derive a rate of return.
CA CL Referred as point of view of an Accountant. It indicates liquidity position of a firm & suggests the extent to which working capital needs may be financed by permanent sources of funds.
CURRENT ASSETS
Inventory Sundry Debtors Cash and Bank Balances Loans and advances
CURRENT LIABILITIES
Sundry creditors Short term loans Provisions
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Short Life Span I.e. cash balances may be held idle for a week or two , thus a/c may have a life span of 30-60 days etc. Swift Transformation into other Asset forms I.e.each CA is swiftly transformed into other asset forms like cash is used for acquiring raw materials , raw materials are transformed into finished goods and these sold on credit are convertible into A/R & finlly into cash.
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Matching Principle
If a firm finances a long term asset(like machinery) with a S-T Debt then it will have to be periodically finance the asset which will be risky as well as inconvenient. i.e. maturity of sources of financing should be properly matched with maturity of assets being financed. Thus Fixed Assets & permanent CA should be supported with L-T sources of finance & fluctuating CA by S-T sources.
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MATCHING PRINCIPLE
As profits earned depend upon magnitude of sales and they donot convert into cash instantly, thus there is a need for working capital in the form of CA so as to deal with the problem arising from lack of immediate realisation of cash against goods sold. This is referred to as Operating or Cash Cycle . It is defined as The continuing flow from cash to suppliers, to inventory , to accounts receivable & back into cash .
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Thus needs for working capital arises from cash or operating cycle of a firm. Which refers to length of time required to complete the sequence of events. Thus operating cycle creates the need for working capital & its length in terms of time span required to complete the cycle is the major determinant of the firms working capital needs.
2.
3.
Conversion of cash into inventory Conversion of inventory into Receivables Conversion of Receivables into Cash
OPERATING CYCLE
Phase 3
Cash
Receivables
Phase 2
Inventory
Phase 1
THERE IS ALWAYS A MINIMUM LEVEL OF CA WHICH IS CONTINOUSLY REQUIRED BY A FIRM TO CARRY ON ITS BUSINESS OPERATIONS. THUS , THE MINIMUM LEVEL OF INVESTMENT IN CURRENT ASSETS THAT IS REQUIRED TO CONTINUE THE BUSINESS WITHOUT INTERRUPTION IS REFERRED AS PERMANENT WORKING CAPITAL.
THIS IS THE AMOUNT OF INVESTMENT REQUIRED TO TAKE CARE OF FLUCTUATIONS IN BUSINESS ACTIVITY OR NEEDED TO MEET FLUCTUATIONS IN DEMAND CONSEQUENT UPON CHANGES IN PRODUCTION & SALES AS A RESULT OF SEASONAL CHANGES.
DISTINCTION
PERMANENT IS STABLE OVER TIME WHEREAS VARIABLE IS FLUCTUATING ACCORDING TO SEASONAL DEMANDS. INVESTMENT IN PERMANENT PORTION CAN BE PREDICTED WITH SOME PROFITABILITY WHEREAS INVESTMENT IN VARIABLE CANNOT BE PREDICTED EASILY. WHILE PERMANENT IS MINIMUM INVESTMENT IN VARIOUS CA , VARIABLE IS EXPECTED TO TAKE CARE FOR PEAK IN BUSINESS ACTIVITY.
DISTINCTION
WHILE PERMANENT COMPONENT REFLECTS THE NEED FOR A CERTAIN IRREDUCIBLE LEVEL OF CURRENT ASSETS ON A CONTINOUS AND UNINTERRUPTED BASIS , THE TEMPORARY PORTION IS NEEDED TO MEET SEASONAL & OTHER TEMPORARY REQUIREMENTS. ALSO PERMANENT CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS SHOULD BE FINANCED FROM L-T SOURCES , S-TFUNDS SHOULD BE USED TO FINANCE TEMPORARY WORKING CAPITAL NEEDS OF A FIRM,
CHAPTER 2
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Monetary policy is the process by which the govt.,central bank, or monetary authority of a country controls (i) the supply of money, (ii) availability of money, and (iii) cost of money or rate of interest, in order to attain a set of objectives oriented towards the growth and stability of the economy. Monetary policy is the process by which the government, central bank, or monetary authority of a country controls (i) the supply of money, (ii) availability of money, and (iii) cost of money or rate of interest, in order to attain a set of objectives oriented towards the growth and stability of the economy.Monetary theory provides insight into how to craft optimal monetary policy. Monetary policy involves variations in money supply , interest rates , lending by commercial banks etc.
Credit Policy
Credit gives the customer the opportunity to buy goods and services, and pay for them at a later date. Clear, written guidelines that set (1) the terms and conditions for supplying goods on credit , (2) customer qualification criteria (3) procedure for making collections , and (4) steps to be taken in case of customer delinquency . Also called collection policy. Where delinquency means Failure to repay an obligation when due or as agreed. Thus in consumer installment loans, missing two successive payments will normally make the account delinquent
Usually results in more customers than cash trade. Can charge more for goods to cover the risk of bad debt. Gain goodwill and loyalty of customers. People can buy goods and pay for them at a later date. Farmers can buy seeds and implements, and pay for them only after the harvest. Stimulates agricultural and industrial production and commerce. Can be used as a promotional tool. Increase the sales.
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Risk of bad debt. High administration expenses. People can buy more than they can afford. More working capital needed. Risk of Bankruptcy.
Money Supply Bank Rate Reserve Ratios Interest Rates Selective Credit Controls Flow of Credit
Money Supply
This is the sum total of money public funds and can be used for settling transactions to buy and sell things and make other payments constitutes the money supply of a nation. Money supply = Notes and coins with public + Demand deposits with Commercial papers
Bank Rate
Standard rate at which bank is prepared to buy or rediscount bills of exchange or other commercial papers eligible for purchase under Reserve bank of India Act,1934. The rate of interest charged by central bank on their loans to commercial banks is called bank rate(Discount rate). An increase in bank rate makes it more expensive for commercial banks to borrow . This exerts pressure to bring about the rise in interest rates (lending rates) charged by commercial banks on their lending to public. This leads to a general tightening in economy. Whereas decrease in bank rate has the opposite effect and leads to general easing of credit in the economy.
RESERVE REQUIREMENTS
The reserve requirement (or required reserve ratio) is a bank regulation that sets the minimum reserves each bank must hold to customer deposits and notes. These reserves are designed to satisfy withdrawal demands, and would normally be in the form of fiat currency stored in a bank vault(vault cash), or with a central bank. The reserve ratio is sometimes used as a tool in the monetary policy, influencing the country's economy, borrowing, and interest rates .Western central banks rarely alter the reserve requirements because it would cause immediate liquidity problems for banks with low excess reserves; they prefer to use open market operations to implement their monetary policy
RESERVE REQUIREMENTS
1. 2.
Thus central bank makes it legally obligatory for commercial banks to keep a certain minimum percentage of deposits in reserve. These are of 2 types:Cash reserves Liquidity reserves
CRR
CASH RESERVE RATIO THIS IS DEFINED AS A cash reserve ratio (or CRR) is the percentage of bank reserves to deposits and notes. The cash reserve ratio is also known as the cash asset ratio or liquidity ratio.
Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) is a term used in the regulation of banking in India. It is the amount which a bank has to maintain in the form: Cash Gold valued at a price not exceeding the current market price, Unencumbered approved securities (G Secs or Gilts come under this) valued at a price as specified by the RBI from time to time.
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The quantum is specified as some percentage of the total demand and time liabilities ( i.e. the liabilities of the bank which are payable on demand anytime, and those liabilities which are accruing in one months time due to maturity) of a bank. This percentage is fixed by the Reserve Bank of India. The maximum and minimum limits for the SLR are 40% and 25% respectively. Following the amendment of the Banking regulation Act(1949) in January 2007, the floor rate of 25% for SLR was removed. Presently the SLR is 24% with effect from 8 November, 2008. The objectives of SLR are: To restrict the expansion of bank credit. To augment the investment of the banks in Government securities. To ensure solvency of banks. A reduction of SLR rates looks eminent to support the credit growth in India.
INTEREST RATES
This is generally done by stipulating min. rates of interest for extending credit against commodities covetred under selective credit control. Also, concessive or ceiling rates of interest are made applicable to advances for certain purposes ao to certain sectors to reduce the interest burden and thus facilitate their development. Further obj. behind fixing rates on deposits are to avoid unhealthy competition amongst the banks for deposits and keep the level of deposit rates in alignment with lending rates of banks for deposits.
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These are Qualitative instruments which are aimed at affecting changes in the availability of credit with respect to particular sectors of the economy. Thus selective controls are called selective because they are aimed at movement of credit towards selective sectors of the economy.
The general instruments such as Reserve ratios, Bank rate and open market operations. They are called so because they influence the nations money supply and general availability of credit. Quantitative instruments are called quantitative because they affect the total volume(quantity) of money supply and credit in the country.
The most widely used qualitative techniques are selective control and moral suasion. While the general credit controls operate on the cost and total volume of credit , selective credit controls relate to tools available with the monetary authority for regulating the distrubution or direction of bank resources to particular sectors of economyin accordance with broad national priorities considered necessary for achieving the set.
MORAL SUASION
IT IMPLIES THE CENTRAL BANK EXERTING PRESSURE ON BANKS BY USING ORAL AND WRITTEN APPEALS TO EXPAND OR RESTRICT CREDIT IN LINE WITH ITS CREDIT POLICY.
CHAPTER 3
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THIS APPROACH IS BASED ON THE PREMISE THAT EVERY COMPANY IS GUIDED BY THE INDUSTRY PRACTICE. LIKE IF MAJORITY OF FIRMS HAVE BEEN GRANTING 3 MONTHS CREDIT TO A CUSTOMER THEN OTHERS WILL HAVE TO ALSO FOLLOW THE MAJORITY DUE TO FEAR OF LOSING CUSTOMERS.
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THIS APPROACH RECOGNISES THE VARIATIONS IN BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ADVOCATES USE OF STRATEGYIN TAKING WORKING CAPITAL DECISIONS. THE PURPOSE BEHIND THIS APPROACH IS TO PREPARE THE UNIT TO FACE CHALLENGES OF COMPETITION & TAKE A STRATEGIC POSITION IN THE MARKET PLACE.
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THE EMPHASIS IS ON STRATEGIC BEHAVIOUR OF BUSINESS UNIT.THUS THE FIRM IS INDEPENDENT IN CHOOSING ITS OWN COURSE OF ACTION WHICH IS NOT GUIDED BY THE RULES OF INDUSTRY,
General nature of business Production cycle Business cycle Credit policy Production policy Growth and expansion Profit level Operating efficiency
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