1 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

2 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

What is a cell?
Cells are the basic unit of life. They are small membranebound structures containing several smaller structures called organelles. There are two main categories of cell, each of which have important different structural properties:

eukaryotic cell, including the cells of animals and plants

prokaryotic cell, including bacterial cells.

3 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

A brief history

4 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

The cell membrane and cytoplasm

All cells, and all true organelles, are contained within a membrane, based on a phospholipid bilayer. The cell membrane holds a cell together and controls what enters and leaves the cytoplasm, as it is a selectively permeable barrier. The cytoplasm comprises a liquid called cytosol, and all the organelles suspended in it (except the nucleus in eukaryotes). The cell membrane and cytoplasm are universal features of the living cell.
5 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

The universal energy carrier

Cells need a constant supply of energy to carry out vital processes such as protein synthesis, DNA replication and cell division.

This energy originally comes from fuel molecules, such as glucose, consumed by the organism. These are broken down during aerobic or anaerobic respiration, and the energy released is used to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

ATP

ADP

ATP diffuses throughout the cell, and breaks down into adenosine diphosphate (ADP), releasing chemical energy wherever it is needed.
6 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

7 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2007

What is a eukaryote?
A eukaryote is any organism consisting of one or more cells that contain DNA in a membrane-bound nucleus, separate from the cytoplasm.

Eukaryotes include:

animals

plants
fungi a diverse group known as the protists (or protoctists).

All eukaryotic cells contain a large number of specialized, membrane-bound organelles.

8 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

The organelles of protein synthesis

9 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is an energy-generating organelle. It is surrounded by two membranes. The inner layer folds inwards to form the cristae. The cristae project into a liquid called the matrix. outer membrane cristae

matrix
inner membrane

The inner membrane is coated in enzymes, which catalyze the reactions of aerobic respiration to produce ATP.
10 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

Microtubules and the cytoskeleton

11 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Which organelle?

12 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Plant cells
Plant cells share all the common features of animal cells, but also contain some additional organelles. Plants gain all their energy from sunlight; cells in their leaves contain many chloroplasts to convert this into a useful form.

chloroplast
vacuole Every plant cell is surrounded by a cell wall, and contains one or more permanent vacuoles.
13 of 37

cell wall

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts use carbon dioxide, water and light energy to build sugars. They are present in all green plants. The chloroplast is surrounded by a double membrane. It is filled with a liquid called the stroma, and contains stacks of thylakoid membranes called grana. grana stroma thylakoid membrane The thylakoid membranes are the site of photosynthesis.
14 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

Vacuoles
Permanent vacuoles only exist in plant cells. Animal cells can contain temporary vacuoles but they are not common features. A vacuole consists of a membrane called the tonoplast, filled with cell sap a watery solution of different substances, including sugars, enzymes and pigments. The vacuole is important in keeping the cell firm. When the vacuole is full of sap the cell is said to be turgid.
15 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

The cell wall

The cell wall of a plant cell gives it support and structure. It is made of the polysaccharide cellulose, and can function as a carbohydrate store by varying the amount of cellulose it holds. The cell wall does not seal off a cell completely from its neighbours. There are pores within the walls called plasmodesmata. These connect two cells together by their cytoplasm, enabling the exchange and transport of substances.
16 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

Eukaryotic organelles

17 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

18 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2007

What is a prokaryote?
A prokaryote is any organism usually single-celled whose DNA is suspended freely in the cytoplasm. The word means before the nucleus. Prokaryotes can be divided into two groups:

bacteria archaea.

Prokaryotes have simpler structure than eukaryotes, lacking organelles such as the nucleus, ER and Golgi.

19 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Features of the bacteria and archaea

20 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Bacterial capsules
Many pathogenic bacteria are surrounded by a mucous-like protective layer called a capsule. capsule cell wall

The capsule protects bacteria from viruses, or attack from a host organisms immune system, by hiding antigens on the cell surface. The capsule is usually composed of polysaccharides, and also contains water to protect against desiccation (drying out).
21 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

Flagella and pili

Some prokaryotic cells feature one or more flagella. These are long helical tubes extending out of the cell wall, which rotate to provide locomotion. Flagella are powered by protein motors and can propel bacteria at a rate of more than 50 lengths per second. Many bacteria also feature pili. These are hollow protein structures used during bacterial conjugation the transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another.
22 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

Plasmids
Bacterial cells often contain several plasmids small continuous loops of DNA. Plasmids are replicated independently of a bacteriums genophore (e.g. during bacterial conjugation), and may confer an advantage, such as antibiotic resistance.

pilus draws bacteria together

replication of plasmid

Plasmids are commonly used in genetic engineering to make copies of genes or large quantities of proteins or hormones.
23 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

Structure of a bacterium

24 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

25 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2007

How small is a cell?

26 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Light microscopes
Light (or optical) microscopes use lenses to project a magnified image of an object onto the eye.

Magnification is a measure of how many times bigger the image is than the object:
size of image actual size of the object

magnification =

Light microscopes are limited to a magnification of 1500 by their resolving power (resolution). This is a measure of their ability to distinguish between two separate points. A light microscope cannot resolve two points that are closer than half a wavelength of visible light (250 nm).
27 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

Virtual microscope

28 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Electron microscopes

29 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Preparing a specimen for microscopy

Electron microscopes contain a vacuum as air particles would interfere with the beam of electrons.

Water boils at room temperature in a vacuum, so the specimen must be dried out completely (dead). Optical microscopes can be used to view living specimens. Coloured dyes (stains) can be used to make specific structures more visible under a light microscope.
30 of 37 Boardworks Ltd 2008

Extracting organelles from cells

31 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Microscope characteristics

32 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

33 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2007

Glossary

34 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Whats the keyword?

35 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Eukaryotes vs. prokaryotes

36 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008

Multiple-choice quiz

37 of 37

Boardworks Ltd 2008