McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

, 2000
CRYPTOGRAPHY
The word cryptography in Greek means “secret writing.” The term today
refers to the science and art of transforming messages to make them
secure and immune to attacks.

Cryptography components

The original message before being transformed, is called Plaintext.

After the message is transformed is called Cipher text.
An encryption algorithm transforms the plaintext to cipher text, and a
decryption algorithm transforms the cipher text to plaintext.

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 CIPHER

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A cipher is an algorithm for performing encryption
or decryption — a series of well-defined steps that
can be followed as a procedure.

Also called as encipherment.

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 CIPHER

CLASSICAL MODERN

INPUT KEY BASED

SUBSTITUTI TRANSPOSITI SIZE
ON ON BASED

BLOCK STREAM SYMME ASYMME

CIPHER CIPHER TRIC TRIC KEY
KEY ALGO
ALGO
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 Classical cipher:--

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 Substitution Encryption Method
- Caesar Cipher
A cipher using the substitution method substitutes one symbol
with another.
For example, we can replace character A with D and T with Z,
0 with 3 and 2 with 7.
The first cipher text was used by Julius Caesar and is still
called Caesar Cipher.
The cipher is shift key characters down.

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8
 Transposition cipher

In transposition cipher, the characters retain their

plaintext form but change their positions to create the
cipher text.

The text is organized into two dimensional table, and

the columns are interchanged according to a key.

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10
 Plaintext: attackxatxdawn

Permute rows
and columns

⇒
 Cipher text: xtawxnattxadakc
 Key: matrix size and permutations (3,5,1,4,2) and
(1,3,2)
000 h=001 i=010 k=011 l=100 r=101 s=110 t=111

Encryption: Plaintext ⊕ Key = Ciphertext

h e i l h i t l e r
Plaintext:
001 000 010 100 001 010 111 100 000 101
Key: 111 101 110 101 111 100 000 101 110 000
Ciphertext:
110 101 100 001 110 110 111 001 110 101

s r l h s s t h s r
000 h=001 i=010 k=011 l=100 r=101 s=110 t=111

Decryption: Cipher text ⊕ Key = Plaintext

s r l h s s t h s r
Cipher text: 110 101 100 001 110 110 111 001 110 101
Key: 111 101 110 101 111 100 000 101 110 000
Plaintext:
001 000 010 100 001 010 111 100 000 101

h e i l h i t l e r
 Modern cipher:--

(INPUT SIZE BASED CIPHER)

Block ciphers - By whether they work on blocks of

symbols usually of a fixed size.

Stream ciphers - By whether they work on a continuous

stream of symbols.

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Key BASED
CIPHER
WHAT IS A KEY ?????

A Key is a number (value) that the cipher, as algorithm,

operates on.

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Symmetric-key cryptography

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In symmetric-key cryptography, the same key is used in both
directions.

The same key is used by the sender (for encryption) and

receiver (for decryption)

Some examples of popular and well-respected symmetric

algorithms

Include DES, AES , Blowfish, TDES, and IDEA.

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 DES Numerology

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 Data Encryption Standard (DES)

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

was designed by IBM and used by
U.S. government.

DES algorithm encrypts a 64-bit

Plaintext using a 56-bit key.

DES has two transposition blocks,

one swapping block and 16
complex blocks called
iteration blocks.
DES is a feistel cipher

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 Iteration block
16 iteration blocks are conceptually the same. Each block use
different key derived from the original key.
The whole DES cipher block is a substitution block that
changes a 64-bit plaintext to a 64-bit cipher text.

The DES cipher

uses the same
concept as the
Caesar cipher, but
the encryption/
decryption
algorithm is much
more complex.

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 Feistel cipher refers to a type of block cipher
design, not a specific cipher
 Split plaintext block into left and right halves:
Plaintext = (L0,R0)
 For each round i=1,2,...,n, compute
Li= Ri−1
Ri= Li−1 ⊕ F(Ri−1,Ki)
where F is round function and Ki is sub key
 Cipher text = (Ln,Rn)
 L R key

32 28 28

expand shift shift

32 48
Ki
28 28 One
⊕
48 48 compress Round
S-boxes
of
28 28
32 DES
P box
32
32
⊕
32
key
L R
 Decryption: Cipher text = (Ln,Rn)
 For each round i=n,n−1,…,1, compute
Ri−1 = Li
Li−1 = Ri ⊕ F(Ri−1,Ki)
where F is round function and Ki is sub key
 Plaintext = (L0,R0)
 Formula “works” for any function F
 But only secure for certain functions F
 Plaintext and cipher text consists of fixed sized
blocks
 Cipher text obtained from plaintext by iterating a
round function
 Input to round function consists of key and the
output of previous round
 Usually implemented in software
 P-box (permutation box)-is a method of bit-
shuffling used to permute or transpose bits
across S-boxes inputs, retaining diffusion while
transposing.
 S-Box (Substitution-box)-It is a basic
component of symmetric key algorithms which
performs substitution.
 It takes some number of input bits, m, and
transforms them into some number of output
bits, n: an m×nS-Box can be implemented as a
lookup table with 2m words of n bits each. Fixed
tables are normally used but in some ciphers the
tables are generated dynamically from the key.

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  In DES 6×4-bit S-Box (S5) is used :
Middle 4 bits of input
S5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
00
010 100 100 001 111 010 011 110 000 101 011 111 101 000 110 001

1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
Oute 01
110 011 010 100 100 111 101 001 101 000 111 010 011 001 000 110
r
bits 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
10
100 010 001 011 010 101 111 000 111 001 100 101 110 011 000 110
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
11
011 000 100 111 001 110 010 101 110 111 000 001 010 100 101 011
Given a 6-bit input, the 4-bit output is found by selecting the row using the outer
two bits(the first and last bits), and the column using the inner four bits. For
example, an input "011011" has outer bits "01" and inner bits "1101"; the
corresponding output would be "1001".

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 Key Distribution - Diffie-Hellman Protocol

A symmetric key between two parties is useful if it is used only once; it must be
created for one session and destroyed when the session is over.
Diffie-Hellman protocol: the two parties use the session key to exchange data without having
to remember or store it for future use.

Before establishing a symmetric key, the two parties need to choose two numbers N and G.

The first number, N, is a large prime number with restriction that (N-1)/2 must also be prime.

The second number G is also prime. The two numbers are not confidential.

The steps for key distribution between Alice and Bob:

(1) Alice chooses a larger random number x and calculates R1=G x mod N.
(2) Alice sends R1 to Bob. Note that Alice sends R1, not x to Bob.
(3) Bob chooses another large number y and calculates R2= Gy mod N.
(4) Bob sends R2 to Alice. Again, note that Bob sends R2, not y to Alice.
(5) Alice calculates K=(R2)x mod N. Bob also calculates K=(R1)y mod N.
Note that K can be proven to be the same calculated by both Alice and Bob.
That is the K=Gxy mod N.

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Man-in-the-middle attack

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 29

 Replay attack:
If John has an interest in the data message sent from Alice to Bob.

He can intercept both the authentication message and the data message, store
them, and resend them later to Bob.

Bob has no way to know if this is a replay of a previous message. There nothing
in this procedure to guarantee the freshness of the message.

For example, suppose Alice’s message instruct Bob to pay John for some job he
has done. John can resend the message, thereby illegally getting paid twice for
the same job.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 30

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In public-key cryptography, there are two keys: a private key and a public key.
The private key is kept by the receiver. The public key is announced to the public.
The public key is used for encryption and is available to public; the private key
is available only to an individual.

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 (Rivest, Shamir and Adleman) RSA

The most common public-key algorithm is called RSA method.

In the method, the private key here is a pair of numbers (N, d);
the public key is also a pair of numbers (N, e).

The sender uses the following algorithm to encrypt the message:

C=Pe mod N;
P is the plaintext, C is cipher text.

The receiver decrypts as following: P=Cd mod N.

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34
 Comparison of symmetric and asymmetric
-key cryptography
Symmetric-key cryptography:
(1) Advantages: Efficiency, less time to encrypt a message
(2) Disadvantages: each pair of users must have a unique key,
N users need N(N-1)/2 keys; The key distribution can be difficult.
Asymmetric-key cryptography:
(1) Advantages: Easy key distribution, the public key can be
used for any users;
Each user only needs a pair of keys.
(2) Disadvantages: algorithm is complex the public key
for a user must be verified.

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 Applications of cryptography include ATM
cards, computer passwords, and electronic
commerce.
 authentication, digital signatures,

interactive
. proofs
 to ensure secrecy in communications, such

as those of spies, military leaders, and

diplomats
 Privacy means that the sender and the receiver
expect confidentiality. The transmitted message
must make sense to only the intended receiver.
To all others, the message must be unintelligible.
 Hence , cryptography is very important task in
order to keep data secure.
 No doubt it involves time but that time would be
of course, of no use if data goes in other hands.

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McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000