8.2 Settlement based on theory of elasticity 8.3 Improved equation for elastic settlement 8.4 Calculation of elastic settlement in granular soil using simplified strain influence factor 8.5 One-dimensional primary consolidation settlement calculation 8.6 SkemptonBjerrum modification for calculation of consolidation settlement 8.7 Settlement of overconsolidated clays 8.8 Settlement calculation using stress path 8.9 Comparison of primary consolidation settlement calculation procedures 8.10 Secondary consolidation settlement 8.11 Precompression for improving foundation soils The increase of stress in soil layers due to the load imposed by various structures at the foundation level will always be accompanied by some strain, which will result in the settlement of the structures. In general, the total settlement S of a foundation can be given as In granular soils elastic settlement is the predominant part of the settlement, whereas in saturated inorganic silts and clays the primary consolidation settlement probably predominates. The secondary consolidation settlement forms the major part of the total settlement in highly organic soils and peats. Definition of soil modulus from triaxial test results 1. Initial tangent modulus E i 2. Tangent modulus at a given stress level E t 3. Secant modulus at a given stress level E s 4. shear modulus G 8.1 Modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio E s E t E i Based on experimental values, it appears that The undrained secant modulus of clay soils can generally be expressed as Su: undrained shear strength Relation between E/S u and overconsolidation ratio from consolidated undrained tests on three clays determined from CK o U type direct shear tests (after DAppolonia et al., 1971). The modulus of elasticity can also be calculated from shear modulus G. For undrained loading condition, v= 0.5; hence E 3G. For shear strain levels of less than 10 5 (Hardin and Drnevich, 1972), For normally and lightly overconsolidated clays of high to medium plasticity, For static loading conditions, Geregen and Pramborg (1990) also obtained the following correlation for very stiff dry-crust clay Modulus of elasticitygranular soil The modulus of elasticity has been correlated to the field standard penetration number N and also the cone penetration resistance q c by various investigators. 8.2 Settlement based on theory of elasticity Consider a foundation located at a depth below the ground surface. A rigid layer is located at a depth below the bottom of the foundation. Theoretically, if the foundation is perfectly flexible, the settlement may be expressed as Elastic settlement Elastic settlement of flexible and rigid foundations. To calculate settlement at the center of the foundation, we use To calculate settlement at a corner of the foundation, use The variations of F 1 and F 2 with m and n are given in Tables 8.6 through 8.9, respectively. The variation of I f with D f /B and v (=0; 0.4; 0.5) is shown in Figure 8.4 (for L/B = 1, 2, and 5), which is based on Fox (1948). Due to the nonhomogeneous nature of soil deposits, the magnitude of E may vary with depth. a weighted average of E is recommended For a rigid foundation Example A rigid shallow foundation 12m is shown in below figure. Calculate the elastic settlement at the center of the foundation. Elastic settlement for a rigid shallow foundation solution Given B = 1m and L = 2m. From Tables 8.6 8.8, F 1 = 0.641 and F 2 = 0.031. For the center of the foundation Again, D f /B = 1/1 = 1, L/B = 2, and v = 0.3. From Figure 8.4b, Depth factor: I f = 0.709. Hence according to equation (8.23), 8.3 Improved equation for elastic settlement The formula takes into account the rigidity of the foundation, the depth of embedment of the foundation, the increase in the modulus of elasticity of the soil with depth, and the location of rigid layers at a limited depth. to determine the equivalent diameter B e of a rectangular foundation Improved equation for calculating elastic settlementgeneral parameters a foundation with an equivalent diameter B e located at a depth D f below the ground surface. Let the thickness of the foundation be t and the modulus of elasticity of the foundation material be E f . A rigid layer is located at a depth H below the bottom of the foundation. The modulus of elasticity of the compressible soil layer can be given as E = E o +kz Variation of I G with |' Similarly, the embedment correction factor is The foundation rigidity correction factor can be expressed as Flexibility factor: Kf Variation of rigidity correction factor I F with flexibility factor K F
Example For a shallow foundation supported by a silty clay as shown in the Figure Length = L = 15m, Width = B = 1m, Depth of foundation = D f = 1m, Thickness of foundation = t = 0.23m, Load per unit area = q = 190kN/m 2 . Variation of embedment correction factor I E with D f /B e
Estimate the elastic settlement of the foundation. Solution the equivalent diameter is The silty clay soil has the following properties: So, with q = 190kN/m 2 , it follows that 8.4 Calculation of elastic settlement in granular soil using simplified strain influence factor The equation for vertical strain z under the center of a flexible circular load was given in the Eq.3.82 as where I z is the strain influence factor. empirical strain influence factors for square L/B = 1 and strip foundations L/B 10 as shown in Figure 8.11. Interpolations can be made for L/B values between 1 and 10. A' and B' are nondimensional and are functions of z/b and s/b; their values are given in Tables 3.13 and 3.14. Strain influence factor empirical strain influence factors for square L/B = 1 and strip foundations L/B 10 as shown in the Figure. Interpolations can be made for L/B values between 1 and 10. where t is time, in years. Fig.8.12 Calculation of S e from strain influence factor 1. On the basis of the actual variation of q c , assume a number of layers having a constant value of q c . This is shown by the dashed lines in Figure 8.12b. 2. Divide the soil located between z = 0 and z = z' into several layers, depending on the discontinuities in the strain influence factor diagram (Figure 8.12a) and the idealized variation of q c
(i.e., dashed lines in Figure 8.12b). The layer thicknesses are Az 1 , Az 2 & Az n . 3. Prepare a table (e.g., Table 8.10) and calculate E(I z /E)Az. 4. Calculate C 1 and C 2 from Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34). In Eq. (8.34), assume t to be 510 years. 5. Calculate S e from Eq. (8.32). the following steps can be taken to calculate Se. Example The idealized variation of the cone penetration resistance below a bridge pier foundation is shown in a figure. The foundation plan is 202m. Given D f = 2m, unit weight of soil = 16kN/m 3 , and .q = 150kN/m 2 , calculate the elastic settlement using the strain influence factor method. solution Refer to Figure 8.13, which is a strip foundation, since L/B =20/2 = 10. The soil between the strain influence factor zone has been divided into five layers. The following table can now be prepared. Settlement calculation under a pier foundation Calculate Use t = 10 years. So, 8.5 One-dimensional primary consolidation settlement calculation where o' c is the preconsolidation pressure. (consolidation settlement) the settlement for one-dimensional consolidation can be given by, overconsolidation pressure Method A 1. Calculate the average effective pressure o' 0 on the clay layer before the application of the load under consideration. 2. Calculate the increase of stress due to the applied load at the top, middle, and bottom of the clay layer. This can be done by using theories developed in Chap. 3. The average increase of stress in the clay layer can be estimated by Simpsons rule, 3. Using the o' 0 and Ao av calculated above, obtain Ae from Eqs. 6.77 6.78, or 6.79, whichever is applicable. 4. Calculate the settlement by using Eq. 6.76. Calculation of consolidation settlementmethod A Method B 1. Better results in settlement calculation may be obtained by dividing a given clay layer into n layers as shown in Figure 8.15. 2. Calculate the effective stress o' 0(i) at the middle of each layer. 3. Calculate the increase of stress at the middle of each layer Ao i
due to the applied load. 4. Calculate Ae i for each layer from Eqs. 6.77, .678, or 6.79, whichever is applicable. 5. Total settlement for the entire clay layer can be given by Calculation of consolidation settlementmethod B Example A circular foundation 2m in diameter is shown in Figure a. A normally consolidated clay layer 5m thick is located below the foundation. Determine the consolidation settlement of the clay. Use method B. solution divide the clay layer into five layers, each 1m thick. Calculation of o' 0(i): The effective stress at the middle of layer 1 is The effective stress at the middle of the second layer is Similarly,
Consolidation settlement calculation from layers of finite thickness Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 4 Layer 5 96.97 6.04 30.10 73.54 Calculation of Ao i : For a circular loaded foundation, the increase of stress below the center is given by Eq. (3.74), and so, where b is the radius of the circular foundation, 1m. Hence Calculation of consolidation settlement S c : The steps in the calculation are given in the following table (see also Figures 8.16b and c); So, Sc= 0.0793m = 79.3mm. ) ( 28 . 28 6 04 . 6 66 . 16 4 97 . 96 ) 4 ( 6 1 a b m t av kP = + + = A + A + A = A o o o o ) ( 82 . 51 6 54 . 73 82 . 51 4 10 . 30 ) 4 ( 6 1 a b m t kP = + + = ' + ' + ' = ' o o o o 03 . 0 82 . 51 28 . 28 82 . 51 log 16 . 0 log = + = ' A + ' = A o o o av c C e ) ( 081 . 0 5 85 . 0 1 03 . 0 1 0 m H e e s t c = + = + A = According to Method A: 8.6 SkemptonBjerrum modification for calculation of consolidation settlement Skempton and Bjerrum (1957) proposed that the vertical compression of a soil element of thickness dz due to an increase of pore water pressure Au may be given by where m v is coefficient of volume compressibility, or The increase of pore water pressure at a point due to a given load is Development of excess pore water pressure below the centerline of a circular loaded foundation For conventional one-dimensional consolidation (K o condition), Settlement ratio, Total consolidation settlement: We can also develop an expression similar to above Eq. for consolidation under the center of a strip load (Scott, 1963) of width B. only be used for settlement calculation along the axes of symmetry. Away from the axes of symmetry, the principal stresses are no longer in vertical and horizontal directions. Settlement ratio for strip and circular loading Example The average representative value of the pore water pressure parameter A (as determined from triaxial tests on undisturbed samples) for the clay layer shown in Figure 8.19 is about 0.6. Estimate the consolidation settlement of the circular tank. Consolidation settlement under a circular tank Solution The average effective overburden pressure for the 6- m-thick clay layer is o' 0 = (6/2)(19.249.81)=28.29kN/m 2 . We will use Eq. (8.35) to obtain the average pressure increase: From Figure 8.18 the settlement ratio circular is approximately 0.73 (note that H t /B = 2), so Settlement ratio for strip and circular loading 8.7 Settlement of overconsolidated clays Settlement ratio in overconsolidated clay (after Leonards, 1976) Is a correction factor. if B > 4H t ,=1 may be used. if the depth to the top of the clay stratum exceeds twice the width of the loaded area, =1 should be used. Settlement of structures founded on overconsolidated clay can be calculated by dividing the clay layer into a finite number of layers of smaller thicknesses as outlined in method B. Thus 8.8 Settlement calculation using stress path Lambes (1964) stress path was explained in Sec. 7.15. Based on Figure 7.42, it was also concluded that 1. the stress paths for a given normally consolidated clay are geometrically similar, and 2. when the points representing equal axial strain (1) are joined, they will be approximate straight lines passing through the origin.
Let us consider a case where a soil specimen is subjected to an oedometer (one-dimensional consolidation) type of loading (Figure 8.21). For this case, we can write Determination of the slope of K o line where K o is the at-rest earth pressure coefficient the coordinates of point E can be given by Plot of p' versus q' with Ko and Kf lines. where | is the angle that the line OE (K o line) makes with the normal stress axis. If o' 1 =o' 3 (i.e., hydrostatic compression) and the specimen is subjected to a hydrostatic stress increase of Ao under drained conditions, then the drained stress path would be EF, as shown in the figure . There would be uniform strain in all directions. If o' 3 = K o o' 1
(at-rest pressure) and the specimen is subjected to an axial stress increase of Ao under drained conditions , the specimen deformation would depend on the stress path it follows. For stress path AC, which is along the Ko line, there will be axial deformation only and no lateral deformation. For stress path AB there will be lateral expansion, and so the axial strain at B will be greater than that at C. For stress path AD there will be some lateral compression, and the axial strain at D will be more than at F but less than that at C. Note that the axial strain is gradually increasing as we go from F to B. Stress path and specimen distortion Volume change between two points of a p' versus q' plot. Note: K o line also corresponds to a certain value of 1. In the calculation of settlement from stress paths, it is assumed that, for normally consolidated clays, the volume change between any two points on a p' versus q' plot is independent of the path followed. For a soil specimen, the volume changes between stress paths AB, GH, CD, and CI, for example, are all the same. However, the axial strains will be different. With this basic assumption, we can now proceed to determine the settlement. For ease in understanding, the procedure for settlement calculation will be explained with the aid of an example. For settlement calculation in a normally consolidated clay, undisturbed specimens from representative depths are obtained. Consolidated undrained triaxial tests on these specimens at several confining pressures are conducted, along with a standard one dimensional consolidated test. The stressstrain contours are plotted on the basis of the consolidated undrained triaxial test results. The standard one dimensional consolidation test results will give us the values of compression index Cc. For example, let Figure 8.25 represent the stressstrain contours for a given normally consolidated clay specimen obtained from an average depth of a clay layer. Also let Cc = 0.25 and e 0 = 0.9. The drained friction angle (determined from consolidated undrained tests) | is 30. From Eq. (8.50), Owing to the construction of a structure, the increase of the total major and minor principal stresses at an average depth are So, before loading, stress condition represented by Point A Immediately after loading, Point E ADE is the effective stress path that a soil element, at average depth of the clay layer, will follow. Use of stress path to calculate settlement AD represents the elastic settlement, and DE represents the consolidation settlement. For elastic settlement (stress path A to D), the volumetric strain between D and E is the same as the volumetric strain between A and H. Note that H is on the Ko line. For point A o' 1 = 75kN/m 2 , and for point H o' 1 = 118kN/m 2 . The axial strain 1 along a horizontal stress path is about one-third the volumetric strain along the K o line, or So, the consolidation settlement is and hence the total settlement is 8.9 Comparison of primary consolidation settlement calculation procedures Comparison of consolidation settlement calculation procedures essentially we calculate the settlement along the stress path AE, along the K o line. A is the initial at- rest condition of the soil, and E is the final stress condition (at rest) of soil at the end of consolidation. According to the Skempton Bjerrum modification, the consolidation settlement is calculated for stress path DE. AB is the elastic settlement. However, Lambes stress path method gives the consolidation settlement for stress path BC. 8.10 Secondary consolidation settlement The coefficient of secondary consolidation C o was defined as Thus secondary consolidation settlement can be given by Secondary consolidation where t is time and H t the thickness of the clay layer. 8.11 Precompression for improving foundation soils Concept of precompression technique to apply some surcharge loading before foundation construction in order to eliminate or reduce the postconstruction settlement. This technique has been used with success in many large construction projects. a given construction will require a permanent uniform loading of intensity o f . The total primary consolidation settlement due to loading is estimated to be equal to S cf . If we want to eliminate the expected settlement due to primary consolidation, we will have to apply a total uniform load of intensity o = o f + o s . This load will cause a faster rate of settlement of the underlying compressible layer; when a total settlement of S cf has been reached, the surcharge can be removed for actual construction. Choice of degree of consolidation for calculation of precompression The degree of consolidation Uz will vary with depth and will be minimum at midplane, i.e., at z = H. the average degree of consolidation Uav use the midplane degree of consolidation U z=H as the criterion for our calculation. For convenience, a plot of U (f+s) versus T v is given in Figure 8.30. So the time for surcharge load removal, t, is Example The soil profile shown in following figure is in an area where an airfield is to be constructed. The entire area has to support a permanent surcharge of 58kN/m 2 due to the fills that will be placed. It is desired to eliminate all the primary consolidation in 6 months by precompression before the start of construction. Estimate the total surcharge (q = q s +q f ) that will be required for achieving the desired goal. Solution Soil profile for precompression For two-way drainage, Plot of U (f+s) versus T v Variation of U (f+s) with os/of and o f /o' 0
Assignment The p' versus q' diagram for a normally consolidated clay is shown in the figure. The specimen was obtained from an average depth of a clay layer of total thickness of 5m. C c = 0.3 and e 0 = 0.8. (a) Calculate the total settlement (elastic and consolidation) for a loading following stress path ABC. (b) Calculate the total settlement for a loading following stress path ABD. (c) What would be the consolidation settlement according to the SkemptonBjerrum method for the stress path ABC? Assignment A permanent surcharge of 100kN/m 2 is to be applied on the ground surface of the soil profile shown in the figure. It is required to eliminate all of the primary consolidation in 3 months. Estimate the total surcharge= s + f needed to achieve the goal.