48 Nervous System

Chapter 48
Nervous Systems
PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Command and Control Center The human brain

Contains an estimated 100 billion nerve cells, or neurons
Each neuron
May communicate with thousands of other neurons
Functional magnetic resonance imaging

Is a technology that can reconstruct a threedimensional map of brain activity
Figure 48.1
The results of brain imaging and other research methods

Reveal that groups of neurons function in specialized circuits dedicated to different tasks
Concept 48.1: Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells All animals except sponges
Have some type of nervous system
What distinguishes the nervous systems of different animal groups

Is how the neurons are organized into circuits
Organization of Nervous Systems The simplest animals with nervous systems, the cnidarians
Have neurons arranged in nerve nets
Nerve net
Figure 48.2a
(a) Hydra (cnidarian)
Sea stars have a nerve net in each arm

Connected by radial nerves to a central nerve ring
Radial nerve
Nerve ring
Figure 48.2b
(b) Sea star (echinoderm)
In relatively simple cephalized animals, such as flatworms

A central nervous system (CNS) is evident
Eyespot Brain
Nerve cord Transverse nerve
Figure 48.2c
(c) Planarian (flatworm)
Annelids and arthropods

Have segmentally arranged clusters of neurons called ganglia
These ganglia connect to the CNS

And make up a peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Brain Brain Ventral nerve cord Ventral nerve cord Segmental ganglion
Segmental ganglia
Figure 48.2d, e
(d) Leech (annelid)
(e) Insect (arthropod)
Nervous systems in molluscs

Correlate with the animals lifestyles
Sessile molluscs have simple systems

While more complex molluscs have more sophisticated systems
Anterior nerve ring Ganglia Brain Longitudinal nerve cords
Ganglia
Figure 48.2f, g
(f) Chiton (mollusc)
(g) Squid (mollusc)
In vertebrates
The central nervous system consists of a brain and dorsal spinal cord The PNS connects to the CNS
Brain
Spinal cord (dorsal nerve cord)
Sensory ganglion
Figure 48.2h
(h) Salamander (chordate)
Information Processing Nervous systems process information in three stages

Sensory input, integration, and motor output
Sensory input
Sensor
Integration
Motor output
Effector
Figure 48.3
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Central nervous system (CNS)
Sensory neurons transmit information from sensors

That detect external stimuli and internal conditions
Sensory information is sent to the CNS

Where interneurons integrate the information
Motor output leaves the CNS via motor neurons

Which communicate with effector cells
The three stages of information processing

Are illustrated in the knee-jerk reflex
2 Sensors detect a sudden stretch in the quadriceps. 3 Sensory neurons convey the information to the spinal cord. Cell body of sensory neuron in dorsal root ganglion Quadriceps muscle White matter 4 The sensory neurons communicate with motor neurons that supply the quadriceps. The motor neurons convey signals to the quadriceps, causing it to contract and jerking the lower leg forward. Gray matter 5 Sensory neurons from the quadriceps also communicate with interneurons in the spinal cord.
Hamstring muscle
Spinal cord (cross section) Sensory neuron Motor neuron 1 The reflex is initiated by tapping the tendon connected to the quadriceps (extensor) muscle. Interneuron
6 The interneurons inhibit motor neurons that supply the hamstring (flexor) muscle. This inhibition prevents the hamstring from contracting, which would resist the action of the quadriceps.
Figure 48.4
Neuron Structure Most of a neurons organelles

Are located in the cell body
Dendrites Cell body
Nucleus Signal Axon direction Axon hillock
Synapse
Presynaptic cell Myelin sheath
Postsynaptic cell
Figure 48.5
Synaptic terminals
Most neurons have dendrites

Highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons
The axon is typically a much longer extension

That transmits signals to other cells at synapses That may be covered with a myelin sheath
Neurons have a wide variety of shapes

That reflect their input and output interactions
Dendrites
Axon Cell body
Figure 48.6ac (a) Sensory neuron

(b) Interneurons
(c) Motor neuron
Supporting Cells (Glia) Glia are supporting cells

That are essential for the structural integrity of the nervous system and for the normal functioning of neurons
In the CNS, astrocytes

Provide structural support for neurons and regulate the extracellular concentrations of ions and neurotransmitters
Figure 48.7
50 m
Oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) and Schwann cells (in the PNS)
Are glia that form the myelin sheaths around the axons of many vertebrate neurons
Node of Ranvier Layers of myelin Axon Schwann cell Axon Figure 48.8
Myelin sheath
Nodes of Ranvier
Schwann cell Nucleus of Schwann cell

0.1 m
Concept 48.2: Ion pumps and ion channels maintain the resting potential of a neuron Across its plasma membrane, every cell has a voltage
Called a membrane potential
The inside of a cell is negative

Relative to the outside
The membrane potential of a cell can be measured

APPLICATION Electrophysiologists use intracellular recording to measure the membrane potential of neurons and other cells.
TECHNIQUE A microelectrode is made from a glass capillary tube filled with an electrically conductive salt solution. One end of the tube tapers to an extremely fine tip (diameter < 1 m). While looking through a microscope, the experimenter uses a micropositioner to insert the tip of the microelectrode into a cell. A voltage recorder (usually an oscilloscope or a computer-based system) measures the voltage between the microelectrode tip inside the cell and a reference electrode placed in the solution outside the cell.
Microelectrode 70 mV
Voltage recorder Reference electrode
Figure 48.9
The Resting Potential The resting potential

Is the membrane potential of a neuron that is not transmitting signals
In all neurons, the resting potential

Depends on the ionic gradients that exist across the plasma membrane
CYTOSOL EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
[Na+] 15 mM
[K+] 150 mM
[Na+] 150 mM [K+] 5 mM
+ +
[Cl] 10 mM [A] 100 mM
[Cl] + 120 mM +
Plasma membrane
Figure 48.10
The concentration of Na+ is higher in the extracellular fluid than in the cytosol
While the opposite is true for K+
By modeling a mammalian neuron with an artificial membrane

We can gain a better understanding of the resting potential of a neuron
Inner chamber 92 mV Outer chamber Inner chamber +62 mV Outer chamber + 150 mM KCL + Potassium channel 150 mM NaCl
5 mM KCL
15 mM NaCl
Cl
+
Na+ Sodium + channel
K+ +
Cl
Artificial membrane
Figure 48.11a, b (a) Membrane selectively permeable to K+

(b) Membrane selectively permeable to Na+
A neuron that is not transmitting signals

Contains many open K+ channels and fewer open Na+ channels in its plasma membrane
The diffusion of K+ and Na+ through these channels

Leads to a separation of charges across the membrane, producing the resting potential
Gated Ion Channels Gated ion channels open or close

In response to membrane stretch or the binding of a specific ligand In response to a change in the membrane potential
Concept 48.3: Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons If a cell has gated ion channels
Its membrane potential may change in response to stimuli that open or close those channels
Some stimuli trigger a hyperpolarization

An increase in the magnitude of the membrane Stimuli potential
+50 Membrane potential (mV)
50
Threshold
Resting potential Hyperpolarizations
100 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time (msec)
(a) Graded hyperpolarizations produced by two stimuli that increase membrane permeability to K+. The larger stimulus produces Figure 48.12a a larger hyperpolarization.
Other stimuli trigger a depolarization

A reduction in the magnitude of the membrane Stimuli potential
+50
Membrane potential (mV)
50
Threshold Resting Depolarizations potential
100 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time (msec) (b) Graded depolarizations produced by two stimuli that increase membrane permeability to Na+. The larger stimulus produces a Figure 48.12b larger depolarization.
Hyperpolarization and depolarization

Are both called graded potentials because the magnitude of the change in membrane potential varies with the strength of the stimulus
Production of Action Potentials In most neurons, depolarizations

Are graded only up to a certain membrane voltage, called the threshold
A stimulus strong enough to produce a depolarization that reaches the threshold

Triggers a different type of response, called an Stronger depolarizing stimulus action potential
Action potential
0
50
Threshold
Resting potential 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time (msec) (c) Action potential triggered by a depolarization that reaches the threshold.
Figure 48.12c
An action potential
Is a brief all-or-none depolarization of a neurons plasma membrane Is the type of signal that carries information along axons
Both voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltagegated K+ channels

Are involved in the production of an action potential
When a stimulus depolarizes the membrane

Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to diffuse into the cell
As the action potential subsides

K+ channels open, and K+ flows out of the cell
A refractory period follows the action potential

During which a second action potential cannot be initiated
The generation of an action potential

Na+ Na+ + + + + + + K+ 3 Rising phase of the action potential Depolarization opens the activation gates on most Na+ channels, while the K+ channels activation gates remain closed. Na+ influx makes the inside of the membrane positive with respect to the outside. Na+ + + + + + + Na+ + + + + + + K+ 4 Falling phase of the action potential The inactivation gates on most Na+ channels close, blocking Na+ influx. The activation gates on most K+ channels open, permitting K+ efflux which again makes the inside of the cell negative. Na+ + + + + Na+ + +
Action potential 3 2 Threshold 1 Resting potential Time 5 1 4
K+
50
100 2 Depolarization A stimulus opens the activation gates on some Na+ channels. Na+ influx through those channels depolarizes the membrane. If the depolarization reaches the threshold, it triggers an action potential. Extracellular fluid Na+ + + + + + + + + Plasma membrane Cytosol Sodium channel K+ Potassium channel + +
Na+ Activation gates + + + + K+ Inactivation gate 5 + + + +
Na+ + + + +
Figure 48.13
Resting state The activation gates on the Na+ and K+ channels are closed, and the membranes resting potential is maintained.
Undershoot Both gates of the Na+ channels are closed, but the activation gates on some K+ channels are still open. As these gates close on most K+ channels, and the inactivation gates open on Na+ channels, the membrane returns to its resting state.
Conduction of Action Potentials An action potential can travel long distances

By regenerating itself along the axon
At the site where the action potential is generated, usually the axon hillock
An electrical current depolarizes the neighboring region of the axon membrane
Axon Action potential
+ ++ Na + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + 1
An action potential is generated as Na+ flows inward across the membrane at one location.
K+ + + + + K+
Action potential
+
2 + + + + + + + +
+ +

Na
+ +
The depolarization of the action potential spreads to the neighboring region of the membrane, re-initiating the action potential there. To the left of this region, the membrane is repolarizing as K+ flows outward. The depolarization-repolarization process is repeated in the next region of the membrane. In this way, local currents of ions across the plasma membrane cause the action potential to be propagated along the length of the axon.
Figure 48.14
+ +
+
+
K+ + + + + K+
Action potential
+ + + Na + +
3 + +
+ +
Conduction Speed The speed of an action potential

Increases with the diameter of an axon
In vertebrates, axons are myelinated

Also causing the speed of an action potential to increase
Action potentials in myelinated axons

Jump between the nodes of Ranvier in a process called saltatory conduction
Schwann cell Depolarized region (node of Ranvier) Myelin sheath
Cell body
+ ++ + ++
+ + + ++
Axon
Figure 48.15
Concept 48.4: Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses In an electrical synapse
Electrical current flows directly from one cell to another via a gap junction
The vast majority of synapses

Are chemical synapses
In a chemical synapse, a presynaptic neuron

Releases chemical neurotransmitters, which are stored in the synaptic terminal
Postsynaptic neuron
Synaptic terminal of presynaptic neurons
Figure 48.16
5 m
When an action potential reaches a terminal

The final result is the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
Presynaptic cell Postsynaptic cell
Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter
5 Presynaptic membrane
Na+ K+
Neurotransmitter Postsynaptic membrane Ligandgated ion channel
Voltage-gated Ca2+ channel 1 Ca2+ 2 Synaptic cleft 3 4 Postsynaptic membrane 6
Figure 48.17
Ligand-gated ion channels
Direct Synaptic Transmission The process of direct synaptic transmission

Involves the binding of neurotransmitters to ligand-gated ion channels
Neurotransmitter binding
Causes the ion channels to open, generating a postsynaptic potential
Postsynaptic potentials fall into two categories

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)
After its release, the neurotransmitter

Diffuses out of the synaptic cleft
May be taken up by surrounding cells and degraded by enzymes
Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials Unlike action potentials

Postsynaptic potentials are graded and do not regenerate themselves
Since most neurons have many synapses on their dendrites and cell body
A single EPSP is usually too small to trigger an action potential in a postsynaptic neuron
Terminal branch of presynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron E1
Membrane potential (mV)
Threshold of axon of postsynaptic neuron Resting potential
70 E1 E1
Figure 48.18a
(a) Subthreshold, no summation
If two EPSPs are produced in rapid succession

An effect called temporal summation occurs
E1
Axon hillock
Action potential
E1
E1
(b) Temporal summation
Figure 48.18b
In spatial summation
EPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron add together E
E2
1
Action potential
E1 + E2
(c) Spatial summation
Figure 48.18c
Through summation
An IPSP can counter the effect of an EPSP
E1
E1
E1 + I
Figure 48.18d
(d) Spatial summation of EPSP and IPSP
Indirect Synaptic Transmission In indirect synaptic transmission

A neurotransmitter binds to a receptor that is not part of an ion channel
This binding activates a signal transduction pathway

Involving a second messenger in the postsynaptic cell, producing a slowly developing but long-lasting effect
Neurotransmitters The same neurotransmitter

Can produce different effects in different types of cells
Major neurotransmitters
Table 48.1
Acetylcholine Acetylcholine
Is one of the most common neurotransmitters in both vertebrates and invertebrates Can be inhibitory or excitatory
Biogenic Amines Biogenic amines

Include epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin Are active in the CNS and PNS
Amino Acids and Peptides Various amino acids and peptides

Are active in the brain
Gases Gases such as nitric oxide and carbon monoxide

Are local regulators in the PNS
Concept 48.5: The vertebrate nervous system is regionally specialized In all vertebrates, the nervous system
Shows a high degree of cephalization and distinct CNS and PNS components
Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Cranial nerves Ganglia outside CNS Spinal nerves
Figure 48.19
The brain provides the integrative power

That underlies the complex behavior of vertebrates
The spinal cord integrates simple responses to certain kinds of stimuli

And conveys information to and from the brain
The central canal of the spinal cord and the four ventricles of the brain
Are hollow, since they are derived from the dorsal embryonic nerve cord
Gray matter
White matter
Ventricles
Figure 48.20
The Peripheral Nervous System The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS
And plays a large role in regulating a vertebrates movement and internal environment
The cranial nerves originate in the brain

And terminate mostly in organs of the head and upper body
The spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord

And extend to parts of the body below the head
The PNS can be divided into two functional components

The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division
Enteric division
Figure 48.21
The somatic nervous system

Carries signals to skeletal muscles
The autonomic nervous system

Regulates the internal environment, in an involuntary manner Is divided into the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions
The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

Have antagonistic effects on target organs
Parasympathetic division Action on target organs: Location of preganglionic neurons: brainstem and sacral segments of spinal cord Constricts pupil of eye Stimulates salivary gland secretion Constricts bronchi in lungs Slows heart Sympathetic ganglia Cervical Sympathetic division
Action on target organs:

Dilates pupil of eye Inhibits salivary gland secretion Relaxes bronchi in lungs Accelerates heart Location of preganglionic neurons: thoracic and lumbar segments of spinal cord
Neurotransmitter released by preganglionic neurons: acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter released by preganglionic neurons: acetylcholine
Location of postganglionic neurons: in ganglia close to or within target organs
Stimulates activity of stomach and intestines Stimulates activity of pancreas
Thoracic
Inhibits activity of stomach and intestines Inhibits activity of pancreas Stimulates glucose release from liver; inhibits gallbladder Location of postganglionic neurons: some in ganglia close to target organs; others in a chain of ganglia near spinal cord
Neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons: acetylcholine
Stimulates gallbladder
Lumbar Stimulates adrenal medulla Neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons: norepinephrine
Promotes emptying of bladder Promotes erection of genitalia
Inhibits emptying of bladder Promotes ejaculation and vaginal contractions
Figure 48.22
Synapse
Sacral
The sympathetic division

Correlates with the fight-or-flight response
The parasympathetic division

Promotes a return to self-maintenance functions
The enteric division

Controls the activity of the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder
Embryonic Development of the Brain In all vertebrates

The brain develops from three embryonic regions: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain
Embryonic brain regions Forebrain Midbrain
Hindbrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Forebrain
Figure 48.23a
(a) Embryo at one month
By the fifth week of human embryonic development

Five brain regions have formed from the three embryonic regions
Embryonic brain regions Telencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon Metencephalon Myelencephalon
Mesencephalon Metencephalon
Diencephalon
Myelencephalon
Spinal cord Telencephalon
Figure 48.23b
(b) Embryo at five weeks
As a human brain develops further

The most profound change occurs in the forebrain, which gives rise to the cerebrum
Brain structures present in adult Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres; includes cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) Midbrain (part of brainstem) Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum
Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)
Cerebral hemisphere
Diencephalon: Hypothalamus
Thalamus Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Brainstem: Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata
Pituitary gland Spinal cord Cerebellum
Central canal
Figure 48.23c
(c) Adult
The Brainstem The brainstem consists of three parts

The medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain
The medulla oblongata

Contains centers that control several visceral functions
The pons
Also participates in visceral functions
The midbrain
Contains centers for the receipt and integration of several types of sensory information
Arousal and Sleep A diffuse network of neurons called the reticular formation
Is present in the core of the brainstem
Eye Reticular formation Input from touch, pain, and temperature receptors
Input from ears
Figure 48.24
A part of the reticular formation, the reticular activating system (RAS)

Regulates sleep and arousal
The Cerebellum The cerebellum

Is important for coordination and error checking during motor, perceptual, and cognitive functions
The cerebellum
Is also involved in learning and remembering motor skills
The Diencephalon The embryonic diencephalon develops into three adult brain regions
The epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus
The epithalamus
Includes the pineal gland and the choroid plexus
The thalamus
Is the main input center for sensory information going to the cerebrum and the main output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum
The hypothalamus regulates

Homeostasis
Basic survival behaviors such as feeding, fighting, fleeing, and reproducing
Circadian Rhythms The hypothalamus also regulates circadian rhythms

Such as the sleep/wake cycle
Animals usually have a biological clock

Which is a pair of suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) found in the hypothalamus
Biological clocks usually require external cues

To remain synchronized with environmental cycles
EXPERIMENT In the northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus), activity normally begins with the onset of darkness and ends at dawn, which suggests that light is an important external cue for the squirrel. To test this idea, researchers monitored the activity of captive squirrels for 23 days under two sets of conditions: (a) a regular cycle of 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness and (b) constant darkness. The squirrels were given free access to an exercise wheel and a rest cage. A recorder automatically noted when the wheel was rotating and when it was still. (a) 12 hr light-12 hr dark cycle Light RESULTS When the squirrels were exposed to a regular light/dark cycle, their wheel-turning activity (indicated by the dark bars) occurred at roughly the same time every day. However, when they were kept in constant darkness, their activity phase began about 21 minutes later each day. (b) Constant darkness Light Dark
Dark
1
Days of experiment 5
10
15
20
Figure 48.25
12
16
20
24
12
12
16
20
24
12
Time of day (hr)
Time of day (hr)
CONCLUSION The northern flying squirrels internal clock can run in constant darkness, but it does so on its own cycle, which lasts about 24 hours and 21 minutes. External (light) cues keep the clock running on a 24-hour cycle. Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Cerebrum The cerebrum

Develops from the embryonic telencephalon
The cerebrum has right and left cerebral hemispheres

That each consist of cerebral cortex overlying white matter and basal nuclei
Left cerebral hemisphere Corpus callosum Neocortex Right cerebral hemisphere
Basal nuclei
Figure 48.26
The basal nuclei

Are important centers for planning and learning movement sequences
In mammals
The cerebral cortex has a convoluted surface called the neocortex
In humans, the largest and most complex part of the brain

Is the cerebral cortex, where sensory information is analyzed, motor commands are issued, and language is generated
A thick band of axons, the corpus callosum

Provides communication between the right and left cerebral cortices
Concept 48.6: The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions Each side of the cerebral cortex has four lobes
Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Frontal association area Speech Smell
Speech Taste Hearing Auditory association area
Somatosensory association area Reading Visual association area Vision
Figure 48.27
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe
Each of the lobes

Contains primary sensory areas and association areas
Information Processing in the Cerebral Cortex Specific types of sensory input

Enter the primary sensory areas
Adjacent association areas

Process particular features in the sensory input and integrate information from different sensory areas
In the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex

Neurons are distributed according to the part of the body that generates sensory input or receives motor input
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Toes
Genitalia
Lips Jaw Tongue Primary motor cortex
Tongue Pharynx Abdominal organs Primary somatosensory cortex
Figure 48.28
Lateralization of Cortical Function During brain development, in a process called lateralization

Competing functions segregate and displace each other in the cortex of the left and right cerebral hemispheres
The left hemisphere

Becomes more adept at language, math, logical operations, and the processing of serial sequences
The right hemisphere

Is stronger at pattern recognition, nonverbal thinking, and emotional processing
Language and Speech Studies of brain activity

Have mapped specific areas of the brain responsible for language and speech
Max
Hearing words
Seeing words
Min
Figure 48.29
Speaking words
Generating words
Portions of the frontal lobe, Brocas area and Wernickes area

Are essential for the generation and understanding of language
Emotions The limbic system

Is a ring of structures around the brainstem
Thalamus Hypothalamus
Prefrontal cortex
Olfactory bulb Amygdala

Figure 48.30
Hippocampus
This limbic system includes three parts of the cerebral cortex

The amygdala, hippocampus, and olfactory bulb
These structures interact with the neocortex to mediate primary emotions

And attach emotional feelings to survivalrelated functions
Structures of the limbic system form in early development

And provide a foundation for emotional memory, associating emotions with particular events or experiences
Memory and Learning The frontal lobes

Are a site of short-term memory
Interact with the hippocampus and amygdala to consolidate long-term memory
Many sensory and motor association areas of the cerebral cortex

Are involved in storing and retrieving words and images
Cellular Mechanisms of Learning Experiments on invertebrates

Have revealed the cellular basis of some types of learning
(a) Touching the siphon triggers a reflex that causes the gill to withdraw. If the tail is shocked just before the siphon is touched, the withdrawal reflex is stronger. This strengthening of the reflex is a simple form of learning called sensitization. Siphon Mantle Gill
Tail Head
Figure 48.31a, b
(b) Sensitization involves interneurons that make synapses on the synaptic terminals of the siphon sensory neurons. When the tail is shocked, the interneurons release serotonin, which activates a signal transduction pathway that closes K+ channels in the synaptic terminals of the siphon sensory neurons. As a result, action potentials in the siphon sensory neurons produce a prolonged depolarization of the terminals. That allows more Ca2+ to diffuse into the terminals, which causes the terminals to release more of their excitatory neurotransmitter onto the gill motor neurons. In response, the motor neurons generate action potentials at a higher frequency, producing a more forceful gill withdrawal.
Gill withdrawal pathway Touching the siphon
Siphon sensory neuron Sensitization pathway
Gill motor neuron
Gill
Shocking the tail
Interneuron Tail sensory neuron
In the vertebrate brain, a form of learning called long-term potentiation (LTP)

Involves an increase in the strength of synaptic transmission
1 The presynaptic neuron releases glutamate.
PRESYNAPTIC NEURON
7 NO diffuses into the presynaptic neuron, causing it to release more glutamate.
2 Glutamate binds to AMPA receptors, opening the AMPAreceptor channel and depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane.
NO
6 Ca2+ stimulates the postsynaptic neuron to produce nitric oxide (NO).
Glutamate AMPA receptor NO P Ca2+
NMDA receptor
3 Glutamate also binds to NMDA receptors. If the postsynaptic membrane is simultaneously depolarized, the NMDA-receptor channel opens.
Figure 48.32
5 Ca2+ initiates the phosphorylation of AMPA receptors, making them more responsive. Ca2+ also causes more AMPA receptors to appear in the postsynaptic membrane.
Signal transduction pathways POSTSYNAPTIC NEURON
4 Ca2+ diffuses into the postsynaptic neuron.
Consciousness Modern brain-imaging techniques

Suggest that consciousness may be an emergent property of the brain that is based on activity in many areas of the cortex
Concept 48.7: CNS injuries and diseases are the focus of much research Unlike the PNS, the mammalian CNS
Cannot repair itself when damaged or assaulted by disease
Current research on nerve cell development and stem cells

May one day make it possible for physicians to repair or replace damaged neurons
Nerve Cell Development Signal molecules direct an axons growth

By binding to receptors on the plasma membrane of the growth cone
This receptor binding triggers a signal transduction pathway

Which may cause an axon to grow toward or away from the source of the signal
Midline of spinal cord Developing axon of interneuron Developing axon of motor neuron Netrin-1 receptor Netrin-1 receptor Slit receptor Netrin-1 Floor plate 1 Growth toward the floor plate. 2 Cells in the floor plate of the spinal cord release Netrin-1, which diffuses away from the floor plate and binds to receptors on the growth cone of a developing interneuron axon. Binding stimulates axon growth toward the floor plate. Cell adhesion molecules Growth across the mid-line. 3 Once the axon reaches the floor plate, cell adhesion molecules on the axon bind to complementary molecules on floor plate cells, directing the growth of the axon across the midline. Slit receptor Netrin-1 and Slit, produced by cells of the floor plate, bind to receptors on the axons of motor neurons. In this case, both proteins act to repel the axon, directing the motor neuron to grow away from the spinal cord. Slit Netrin-1 Slit
Growth cone
No turning back. Now the axon synthesizes receptors that bind to Slit, a repulsion protein released by floor plate cells. This prevents the axon from growing back across the midline.
Figure 48.33a, b
(a) Growth of an interneuron axon toward and across the midline of the spinal cord (diagrammed here in cross section)
(b) Growth of a motor neuron axon away from the midline of the spinal cord
The genes and basic events involved in axon guidance

Are similar in invertebrates and vertebrates
Knowledge of these events may be applied one day

To stimulate axonal regrowth following CNS damage
Neural Stem Cells The adult human brain

Contains stem cells that can differentiate into mature neurons
Figure 48.34
The induction of stem cell differentiation and the transplantation of cultured stem cells
Are potential methods for replacing neurons lost to trauma or disease
Diseases and Disorders of the Nervous System Mental illnesses and neurological disorders
Take an enormous toll on society, in both the patients loss of a productive life and the high cost of long-term health care
Schizophrenia About 1% of the worlds population

Suffers from schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is characterized by
Hallucinations, delusions, blunted emotions, and many other symptoms
Available treatments have focused on

Brain pathways that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter
Depression Two broad forms of depressive illness are known

Bipolar disorder and major depression
Bipolar disorder is characterized by

Manic (high-mood) and depressive (low-mood) phases
In major depression
Patients have a persistent low mood
Treatments for these types of depression include

A variety of drugs such as Prozac and lithium
Alzheimers Disease Alzheimers disease (AD)

Is a mental deterioration characterized by confusion, memory loss, and other symptoms
AD is caused by the formation of

Neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in the brain 20 m
Senile plaque Neurofibrillary tangle
Figure 48.35
A successful treatment for AD in humans

May hinge on early detection of senile plaques
Parkinsons Disease Parkinsons disease is a motor disorder

Caused by the death of dopamine-secreting neurons in the substantia nigra Characterized by difficulty in initiating movements, slowness of movement, and rigidity
There is no cure for Parkinsons disease

Although various approaches are used to manage the symptoms

48 Nervous System

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

48 Nervous System

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Chapter 48

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Lectures by Chris Romero

Overview: Command and Control Center The human brain

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

The results of brain imaging and other research methods

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

What distinguishes the nervous systems of different animal groups

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(a) Hydra (cnidarian)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sea stars have a nerve net in each arm

(b) Sea star (echinoderm)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In relatively simple cephalized animals, such as flatworms

Nerve cord Transverse nerve

(c) Planarian (flatworm)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Annelids and arthropods

These ganglia connect to the CNS

(d) Leech (annelid)

(e) Insect (arthropod)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Nervous systems in molluscs

Sessile molluscs have simple systems

(f) Chiton (mollusc)

(g) Squid (mollusc)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Spinal cord (dorsal nerve cord)

(h) Salamander (chordate)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information Processing Nervous systems process information in three stages

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Central nervous system (CNS)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sensory neurons transmit information from sensors

Sensory information is sent to the CNS

Motor output leaves the CNS via motor neurons

The three stages of information processing

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Neuron Structure Most of a neurons organelles

Nucleus Signal Axon direction Axon hillock

Presynaptic cell Myelin sheath

Most neurons have dendrites

The axon is typically a much longer extension

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Neurons have a wide variety of shapes

Axon Cell body

Figure 48.6ac (a) Sensory neuron

(c) Motor neuron

Supporting Cells (Glia) Glia are supporting cells

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In the CNS, astrocytes

Schwann cell Nucleus of Schwann cell

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The inside of a cell is negative

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The membrane potential of a cell can be measured

Voltage recorder Reference electrode

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Resting Potential The resting potential

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In all neurons, the resting potential