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Rock Testing
INTRODUCTION
Rock Mechanics is a field of applied science and has been recognized as a discipline in engineering since the last four decades. It is a study on the mechanical properties and behaviors of rock under loading (mechanics), sets of established principles expressing rock mass response to load, and a logical methodology for applying these notions and techniques to real physical problems. Rock mechanics is a branch in geotechnical engineering.
Contd
Rock is defined as mixtures formed of aggregates of one or more minerals. Classified according to their types (mode of formation) that is igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock.
In terms of strength, the boundary between soil and rock is 1 MPa.
Other properties that differentiate between soils and rocks are density, seismic velocity, Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio and porosity.
Contd
Among the important scopes in Rock Mechanics:(1)Measurement and monitoring of the behaviors and properties of rock (material and mass) and discontinuities in rock: using specific testing procedures and instrumentations, in laboratory and in situ. (2)Determination of rock material constants and relevant equations: describing the rock behavior; deformability under loading (shear and compressive), strength, mode of failure and elastic modulus (E, G and v). (3)Methods of excavation and design of civil engineering structures in rock. (4)Rock stabilization methods (support and reinforcement) for structure in rock.
Rock Testing
Rock is a naturally occurring material and thus, it is inhomogeneous and anisotropic. For artificial material like concrete, its strength can be readily estimated from its designed mix and behaves relatively more homogeneous compared to rock. Rocks are used either as construction materials (fill and reclamation material) or as part of an engineering structure (cut slope, foundation, underground excavation). Rock names and classifications (as defined in Geology) do not provide the numerical values on strength or material properties of rock.
However, these are essential parameters for the design of structures in rock and anticipating the potential problems in civil engineering construction (e.g. method of excavation and stabilizations).
Rock testing is therefore an important topic in rock mechanics.
Contd
Rock testing is aimed at measuring, numerically, the behaviors and properties of rock (in terms of material and mass scale).
Correct properties and elastic constants of rock are essential particularly when these parameters are used as input/data for the design and simulation of a structure under in situ loading conditions using specific software (e.g. Plaxis, G-Slope & Finite Element). Input parameters for design include properties like compressive strength, elastic constants and shear strength of discontinuities.
Contd
Strengths of rock material and rock mass need to be evaluated for the civil engineering structures design such:
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Testing methods or procedures are divided into: (a) Index or indirect test (b) Direct test or strength test
Recommended method of testing: (ISRM, 1982) = are with the objective of standardizing test procedures on all types of rocks. For laboratory test using small and intact rock sample, the effect of specimen size and scale of rock mass discontinuities (bedding planes, mineral arrangement, joint/cracks) on laboratory test data must be evaluated and corrected accordingly.
Value of R can be used to estimate the COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK using the following equation: Log10 JCS = 0.00088(y)(R) + 1.01 (Franklin, 1989)
Where, JCS (MPa) is the compressive strength of rock surface; y (kN/m3) is unit weight of rock. For fresh rock (weathering grade I), JCS is approximately equals to the UCS of the rock material.
Slakes durability
Slake's durability test is used for measuring the 'RESISTANCE INDEX' of a rock when SUBJECTED TO WEATHERING in quantitative durability values. Test is conducted under simulated rapid weathering condition, drying and wetting cycles with abrasion (soaking of aggregate sample in water),. Softer and highly weathered rock slakes easily and slake durability index (Is) is less than 80%. For harder or unweathered rock the value of Is is above 90%.
Slakes durability
E = [(VS2 * )/g+*(3 * (Vp/ Vs)2 - 4)/((Vp/ Vs)2 - 1)] Where is unit weight of sample (kN/m3) and g is gravitational pull.
Contd In summary, INDIRECT or INDEX TESTS do NOT PROVIDE DIRECTLY the STRENGTH OF THE ROCK.
STRENGTH of the rock material is measured NUMERICALLY using an INDEX and CONVERTED TO STRENGTH using SPECIFIC CORRELATION (e.g. UCS estimated from hammer rebound number). STRENGTH VALUE obtained is LESS ACCURATE however, tests are relatively EASIER and CHEAPER to conduct. INSTRUMENTS are also PORTABLE and EASY to handle. Test can be conducted on IRREGULAR SAMPLES and ON ROCK SURFACE. NON-DESTRUCTIVE NATURES of some tests allow samples to be REUSED for other tests. Although, the value of strength obtained is LESS ACCURATE but tests can be done in a LARGE NUMBER thus, improve the average strength value for better estimation on rock strength.
These factors make direct test MORE EXPENSIVE and thus LIMITED TO ROCK PARAMETERS that are essential for design purposes.
Contd
Among tests normally conducted are: (1) Permeability test. (2) Deformation modulus - modulus of elasticity E and Poisson's ratio, v. (3) Unconfined compression test (UCS) & Triaxial compression test. (4) Shear test on discontinuity planes (e.g. joint, bedding and foliation).
E = / a
Contd
The average value of E (GPa) is the gradient of stress-strain curve taken at 50% UCS (50% c).
Typical value of E for rock is between 3 - 90GPa (Table 8.1).
UCS or c of rock varies between rock types, e.g. 50MPa for marble up to 500MPa for quartzite.
The strength also varies between rocks of similar type obtained from different locality. Poisson's ratio is calculated as (if both radial and axial strains are measured) : V = r / (-a) Typical v for rock is between 0.10 and 0.3 as shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Typical values of modulus of elasticity for fresh rock (Stacey & Page, 1986)
Gneiss
Granite Limestone Quartzite
60
60 70 80
0.24
0.22 0.30 0.17
Sandstone
Syal
20
12
0.15
0.10
Contd
Table 8.2 shows the typical static mechanical properties (index and strength) of some common rock types (after Bengt Stillbog, 1986).
MODE OF FAILURE of rock sample after compression also INDICATES ITS STRENGTH.
Unlike soils, ROCKS FAIL EXPLOSIVELY in a SUDDEN MANNER under uniaxial compression. Occasionally FRACTURE PLANES are distinctive.
This indicates their brittleness, i.e. higher stress and smaller strain at failure.
Typical modes of failure for rock samples are shown in Figure 8.10 (Farmer 1982).
Table 8.2
Typical static mechanical properties of some common rock types (after Bengt Stillborg, 1986)
Unconfined compressive strength c [MPa] 50 - 200 5-15 50- 150 5 - 200 Tensile Strength t [MPa] 5-20 5-15 2-20 Modulus of elasticity E [GPa] 20 - 70 15-50 20-50 Point load Index Is(50)[MPa] 0.5 - 7 0.1 -6 0.2-7 6- 10
Rock class
Rock type
Angle of Friction,
33 -40 25-35 27-31
Shale
Gneiss Metamorphic rock Marble Quartz Basalt Igneous rock Gabbro Granite
50- 100
100-200 100-200 200 - 400 100-300 100 - 300 100-200
2- 10
5-20 5-20 25 - 30 10- 15 10-15 5-20
5 -30
30-70 30-70 50-90 40-80 40- 100 30-70
2- 11 2-12 5- 15 9- 14 6- 15 5- 10
27
23 - 29 25 - 35 48 31 -38 29-35
Mode of failure of rock under compression: crushing, fracture plane and barreling (ductile)
Contd
Testing procedures are similar to UCT (Uniaxial Compression Test). Each test is conducted at specific confining stress to simulate stress at depth. For triaxial compression test on rock discontinuities, triaxial test is used to obtain the shear strength parameters of the discontinuities ( and ). Triaxial compression test is important to evaluate the strength of rock in construction of underground excavations located very deep below ground surface (cavern for power house) and underground cavity for radioactive disposals. The test is also essential for evaluating strength of bed rock for foundation of heavy structures.
Shear Test
The test is done on rock sample and is important in project involving EXCAVATION OF FRACTURED and JOINTED ROCK. Shear test is normally conducted on WEAKNESS PLANES IN ROCK (joint, fault and bedding plane), NOT shearing the intact rock material.
Failure and instability in rock mass (plane, wedge, toppling and rock fall) are usually associated with WEAKNESS PLANES.
Thus to evaluate the stability of CUT SLOPES and TUNNEL WALLS, the shear strength of the discontinuities in the in-situ rock must be evaluated using laboratory test or field test (if necessary).
continue
Sampling of DISCONTINUITIES for laboratory test is EXPENSIVE and COMPLEX. Depending on the roughness scale of the discontinuity surface sample up to 300 x 300 mm may be required CORE SAMPLES obtained during site investigation may also be used for laboratory test. During SAMPLING AND SAMPLE PREPARATION, care and precaution must be taken to ensure simple is NOT DISTURBED.
(a) and (b) types of in situ shear test. (c) shear test on unconfining sliding block at constant normal load (d) shear test on confined sliding block, variable normal load to ensure constant normal displacement (Bradey & Brown, 1985)
LOADING RATE (kN/s), STRAINING RATE (% strain/s) and SHEARING RATE (mm/s) - the higher the loading rate, the lower the strength. (ISRM recommended range: 0.1 to 0.001 millistrain/s or corresponding to 1,000 to 10 psi/s DEGREE OF SATURATION OF SAMPLE (normally tested under saturated condition or report on sample saturation during test).
FLATNESS AND SMOOTHNESS OF SPECIMEN SURFACES (bending and flexural effect on compression, cracks may initiates failure). END-CONDITION OR CONTACT BETWEEN SAMPLE AND LOADING PLATENS (standard surface finish of sample and platen and platen material). EFFECT OF DIFFERENT END-CONDITIONS AND H/D RATIO on compressive strength is shown in Figure 8.12.
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT END-CONDITIONS AND H/D RATIO on compressive strength is shown in Figure 8.12. For a given sample diameter (D), ultimate compressive strength (ult) decreases with increasing sample height (H). For H/D greater than 2.0 ult remains constant, thus the recommended H/D > 2 to eliminate size effect. End-conditions also affect ult. The stronger the end platens (graphite, rubber and steel) the higher is the ult. (note: an important aspect in designing a pillars size in underground coal mining). STIFFNESS OF COMPRESSION MACHINE USE - stiff loading column or machine equipped with closed-loop servo-controlled loading system to reduce sudden/violent post failure mode.
THE STATE OF STRESS (remnant stress) in tie rock mass may affect the strength of rock sample obtained for testing.
Most of the above effect CANNOT BE ELIMINATED but can be MINIMIZED through STANDARD PROCEDURES (ISRM, ASTM, U.S. Bureau of Mines, South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy).
Contd
For small laboratory rock sample, it is affected by minerals arrangement and how cleavage such as schistoscity (Figure 8.13) in metamorphic rock.
On a larger scale, rock masses are affected by geological structures and discontinuities like bedding, joint and fault (Figure 8.14). The degree of strength reduction depends on loading orientation with respect to discontinuity planes. Figure 8.15 shows the effect of single joint and multiple joint-set under different inclination of uniaxial compression. In many cases luck exhibits multiple joint sets hence, it is weakened in all directions (3rd curve in). In laboratory testing it is important to note the direction of loading with respect to rock anisotropy. Strength parameters of a rock mass that exhibits small and large-scale discontinuities are more appropriately assessed using in-situ large-scale testing (e.g. in-situ shear and plate bearing test).
Contd
WEATHERING also affects the strength of rock. DEGREE OF ROCK WEATHERING is usually evaluated by SITE ASSESSMENT.
Table 8.4 describes degree of weathering of rock mass (Zone 1 to Zone 6) and rock material (Grade I to Grade VI).
Table 8.4 can be used to estimate the strength reduction of the rock.
It is important to differentiate between ZONE (rock mass) and GRADE (rock material).
Since WEATHERING GRADE could only be assessed SUBJECTIVELY with little information on numerical value of weathering degree, the effect of weathering is relatively DIFFICULT to be INCLUDED IN DESIGN. SLAKE DURABILITY TEST may be used to assessed the degree of weathering numerically.
Table 8.3: Measurement of geotechnical properties of rock and soil (after Hunt, 1984)
(a) BASIC PROPERTIES Specific gravity porosity Void ratio Moisture content Density: Natural Maximum Minimum Relative Hardness X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Durability
Sonic-wave characteristics
X
X (b) INDEX PROPERTIES X X X
Grain-size distribution Liquid limit Plastic limit Plasticity index Shrinkage limit Chemical test (organic, SCX pH) Uniaxial compression X
X X X X X X
Point-load Index
X
(c) ENGINEERING PROPRETIES
Permeability Deformation modulus Consolidation [ixpansion Strength: Unconfined Confined California bearing ratio (CBR)
X X
X X X
X X
X X X
X X X
X X X X
X X
X X
Figure 8.14 Scale effect transition from intact rock to heavily jointed rock mass with increasing sample size
Figure 8.15 The influence of weakness or discontinuity planes on strength, e.g joint orientation with respect to loading axis
Table 8.4
UCS Test
Summary
Geology Normally referred as General Geology: Intro (planet, earth etc), Minerals, Rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic), Weathering, Agents & Geological structures etc.
Engineering Geology Application of Geology in Engineering: S.I, Geophysics, Slope, Tunnel, foundation on rock etc.
Rock Mechanics Rock Testing: Field & Lab Test, rock strength & properties of rock (basic, index or engineering etc).