DEMINERALISATION OF WATER NEED FOR DEMINERALISATION :Raw water contains various dissolved salts & suspended solids.

. For use as feed in boiler these are to be removed as they may get deposited in heat transfer zones thereby restricting heat transfer & may lead to corrosion also. Typical DM Water will have pH around 6.8 , Conductivity < 0.2 umhos/cm, Silica<20 ppb where as raw water is having average conductivity ~ 1350 & silica 16 ppm.

WATER CHEMISTRY-PRE TREATMENT

USE OF WATER IN POWER PLANT COOLING WATER

FIRE FIGHTING
STEAM GENERATION HVAC SYSTEM ALL THE ABOVE MENTIONED USES REQUIRE DIFFERENT QUALITY DIFFERENCE IN QUALITY CALLS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF TREATMENT

RAW WATER COMPARISON

SSTP FGPS pH Cond (s/cm) Turb (NTU) 7.4 94 70 7.1 1294 80 BTPS RhTPS JHANO R 7.8 525 37 7.8 93 92 8.6 210 19 SEA 7.5-8.4 50000 NIL

Hard (ppm)
Alk (ppm) Chlo (ppm)

34
32 5

310
300 325

166
172 70

36
38.6 6.3

102
113 13

6000

18980

Sul (ppm)
Silica(ppm) Org (ppm)

8
8

65
20 20

44
9.5 9

7.5
9.7

NIL
15 2

2650
10

Water treatment plant

What is done?
Parameter Conductivity Turbidity TH Silica Raw water DM water upto 1800 0.06 upto 800 0 upto 400 Nil upto 22 ppm <20ppb

Turbidity Turbidity in the water is suspended insoluble matter including coarse particles (mud, sediment, sand etc.) that settle rapidly on standing. These materials can be removed by settling, coagulation and filtration. Their presence is undesirable because heating or evaporation produces hard stony scale deposits on the heating surface & clog fluid system.

Impurities of water
Suspended Dissolved Gaseous Organic

SETTLING TIMES FOR VARIOUS PARTICLES

Particle diameter mm 10 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 Type of particle Gravel Sand Fine Sand Clay Bacteria Colloid Colloid Colloid Settling time through 1m of water 1 second 10 seconds 2 minutes 2 hours 8 days 2 years 20 years 200 years

m
104 103 102 10 1 10-1 10-2 10-3

A 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 10

WATER CHEMISTRY-PRE TREATMENT

FIRST STEP FOR IMPROVING QUALITY IS PRETREATMENT SCREENING, FLOATING, AERATION OXIDATION OF ORGANICS CLARIFICATION FILTERATION BENEFITS BASICALLY REMOVES SUSPENDED MATTER CHEMICAL ADDITION DURING PRE-TREATMENT CAN HELP REDUCE COLLOIDS (silica) AND DISSOLVED IMPURITIES (hardness,iron etc.) ALSO REDUCTION IN ORGANICS

level of hardness
< 17.1 ppm as CaCO3 - soft 17.1 to 60 ppm- slightly hard 120 to 180 ppm - hard > 180 ppm - very hard

HARDWATER:
WATER WITH HIGH CONCENTRATION OF Ca2+ & Mg2+

TYPES OF HARDNESS:
1. CARBONATE HARDNESS 2. NON-CARBONATE HARDNESS

CARBONATE HARDNESS COMPOUNDS: CaCO3, MgCO3, Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2

NON CARBONATE HARDNESS COMPOUNDS: CaSO4, MgSO4, CaCl2, MgCl2

SOFTENING OF WATER:
REMOVAL OF HARDNESS FROM WATER

REQUIREMENT OF SOFTENING OF WATER:

SCALE FORMATION TASTE PROBLEM

METHOD OF SOFTENING OF WATER:

1. ION EXCHANGE METHOD 2. LIME SOFTENING

REMOVAL OF CARBONATE HARDNESS BY LIME SOFTENING[BY Ca(OH)2]:

AERATION OF WATER: CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

(a) Mg(HCO3)2 +Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 +MgCO3 + 2H2O

(b) MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2
COMPOUNDS: CALCIUM
MAGNESIUM

REQUIRED PH:

9-9.5 10-10.5

REMOVAL OF NON-CARBONATE HARDNESS [BY, LIME Ca(OH)2 + SODA ASH (Na2Co3)]:

MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4 CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4

COMPOUNDS: CALCIUM MAGNESIUM

REQUIRED PH:

10-10.5 11-11.5

WHY SOFTENING PLANT IS REQUIRED?

- Calcium & Magnesium ions are replaced by Sodium ions, - Soft water in which total hardness (Ca & Mg) < 5 ppm COC can be increased -Most of scales formed at heat transfer zones of condenser are carbonates, sulphates & silicates of calcium & magnesium. -Anions (sulphates, carbonates, silicates) cannot be controlled at softening plant, so cations i.e. Calcium & Magnesium are controlled to control scale formation.

Impact of scale
Thickness(mm) scale 0.75 1.5 3.0 6.0 Loss of fuel(%) 8 14 20 50

Treatment of water
Depending upon the source of water, different types of treatment may be required. Surface water may not need to be softened, but it may need a filtration and tannin removal system. ground water may have hardness and iron, so softening may be sufficient.

The process of water treatment can be broadly classified into 2 stages. 1. PT-Stage: In Pre-treatment all the suspended/ colloidal particles like clay, mud, and micro organisms are removed. 2. Demineralisation: In this step, all dissolved solids are removed from water with the aid of ion exchanger resins.

Pre-treatment.
Screening - The first step in purifying surface water is to remove large debris such as sticks, leaves, trash and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent purification steps. Storage - Water from rivers may also be stored in bankside reservoirs for periods between a few days and many months to allow natural biological purification to take place.

Clarification
Pre- Treatment of water Mixing of chemicals with water Coagulation and flocculation Sedimentation Filtration

Coagulants
Aluminium Sulphate, Sodium Aluminate Iron sulphate Poly electrolytes (long chain amides) Poly Aluminium Chloride ( PAC ) Factors affecting coagulation pH ( 5.5 8.0 ) for Al2(SO4)3 Temperature (30- 400C ) Time

PRE-TREATMENT PROCESS
ALUM & POLYMER LIME & Cl2

CLARIFIED WATER STORAGE TANK

CLFR-B
STILLING CHAMBER CHAMBR

STILLING

TO CT MAKE UP

TO GSF

CLFR-A RAW WATER

SLUDGE TO SLUDGE PIT

PROCESS FLOW CHART-FGPS

CHLORINE PAC / ClO2

RESERVOIR
CPH RWFB BLOWDOWN

CLARIFIER

GRAVITY FILTER FILTER

WATER SUMP CT make up

Pretreatment

Pretreatment
Done by clarification and filtration When water is allowed to stand-suspended impurities settle down. Clarification is accelerated by adding coagulants like Alum Al3(SO4)2,FeSO4 ,NaAlO2 This results in formation of flocs or ppts of Al(OH)3 which tends to agglomerate colloidal, suspended or organic impurities. Impurities which are not settled during clarification and sedimentation are removed during filtration.

Inorganic Coagulants
iron and aluminum coagulants are acid salts that lower the pH of the treated water by hydrolysis. Depending on initial raw water alkalinity and pH, an alkali such as lime or caustic must be added to counteract the pH depression of the primary coagulant. Iron and aluminum hydroxide flocs are best precipitated at pH levels that minimize the coagulant solubility.

 With aluminum sulfate- coagulation efficiency and minimum floc solubility normally occur at pH 6.0 to 7.0 Iron coagulants can be used over the pH range of 5.0 to 11.0 If ferrous compounds are used, oxidation to ferric iron is needed for complete precipitation. This requires either chlorine addition or pH adjustment.

pretreatment

The chemical reactions

Al2(SO4)3 + 6NaHCO3 = 2Al(OH)3-+ 3Na2SO4 + 6CO2
aluminum sulfate
sodium bicarbonate aluminum hydroxide sodium sulfate carbon dioxide

Fe2(SO4)3 + 6NaHCO3 = 2Fe(OH)3-+ 3Na2SO4 + 6CO2

ferric sulfate sodium bicarbonate ferric hydroxide sodium sulfate carbon dioxide

Na2Al2O4 + 4H2O = 2Al(OH)3- + 2NaOH

sodium aluminate water aluminum hydroxide sodium hydroxide

Oxidation of Ferrous
Chemicals may be added to oxidize ferrous iron (Fe++), which is relatively high in some groundwater, to the ferric state (Fe+++). If pH of the water is above 7 (either naturally or by adding lime), the insoluble compound of ferric hydroxide is precipitated

Chemical treatment
Chlorine and other chemicals, such as alum or lime, are added to the water to remove impurities, destroy any taste or odor, raise pH, disinfect, and sometimes remove excess minerals such as iron that may cause rust or staining problems. The water is then mixed rapidly to distribute the chemicals evenly.

Coagulation & sedimentation

Coagulation- the process in which suspended particles are combined by chemical means into sufficiently large masses to effect rapid settling. adding small, highly charged cations (aluminium 3+ or Fe 3+ are usually used) Flocculation adding small amounts of charge polymer chains which either form a bridge between the particulate solids (making them bigger) or between the particulate solids and the sand PEL- Some PELs in very small quantities increase the efficiency of coagulants. Sedimentation- settling

Polyelectrolytes
refers to all water-soluble organic polymers used for clarification, whether they function as coagulants or flocculants. Water-soluble polymers classified as : anionic-ionize in water solution to form negatively charged sites along the polymer chain cationic-ionize in water solution to form positively charged sites along the polymer chain nonionic-ionize in water solution to form very slight negatively charged sites along the polymer chain

Poly
Polymeric primary coagulants are cationic materials with relatively low molecular weights (under 500,000). For any given particle there is an ideal molecular weight and an ideal charge density for optimum coagulation. There is also an optimum charge density and molecular weight for the most efficient flocculant. Primary Coagulant Polyelectrolytes- The cationic polyelectrolytes commonly used as primary coagulants are polyamines.

 Raw waters of less than 10 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) usually cannot be clarified with a cationic polymer alone. Best results are obtained by a combination of an inorganic salt and cationic polymer. waters containing 10 to 60 NTU are most effectively treated with an inorganic coagulant and cationic polymer. a significant portion of the inorganic coagulant demand can be met with the cationic polyelectrolyte. With turbidity greater than 60 NTU, a polymeric primary coagulant alone is normally sufficient. In low-turbidity waters where it is desirable to avoid using an inorganic coagulant, artificial turbidity can be added to build floc. Bentonite clay is used to increase surface area for adsorption and entrapment of finely divided turbidity.

Organic polymers vs inorganic coagulants

The amount of sludge produced during clarification can be reduced by 50-90%. The resulting sludge contains less chemically bound water and can be more easily dewatered. Polymeric coagulants do not affect pH. So the need for supplemental alkalinity, such as lime, caustic, or soda ash, is reduced or eliminated. Polymeric coagulants do not add to the total dissolved solids concentration. 1 ppm of alum adds 0.45 ppm of sulfate ion (expressed as CaCO3). The reduction in sulfate can significantly extend the capacity of anion exchange systems. Soluble iron or aluminum carryover in the clarifier effluent may result from inorganic coagulant use. Therefore, elimination of the inorganic coagulant can minimize the deposition of these metals in filters, ion exchange units, and cooling systems.

Objectives of Biological Control

Biological control is the successful inactivation or removal of organisms so that they do not affect makeup treatment plant operation or performance. Minimize the formation of bacterial slime in pretreatment systems (especially piping, clarifiers, filters and filtered water storage tanks). Minimize the formation of algae in pretreatment systems (particularly open clarifiers, tanks and filters).

Removal of organic matter

Organic matter can either be in colloidal or dissolved form or both. Pre-chlorination of water oxidises dissolved organic matter and colloidal organic is best removed by proper coagulation and clarification. Ion exchange resins resistant to fouling by organics present in water should be used. Any residual organic matter can be removed by Nano-filtration (NF) membranes. UF membranes are not very effective due to the low molecular weight of organic matter present in surface waters.

Chemistry in chlorination of water

When chlorine is added to water, it reacts to form a pH dependent equilibrium mixture of chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl

Depending on the pH, hypochlorous acid partly dissociates to hydrogen and hypochlorite ions:
HClO H+ + ClO-

In acidic solution, the major species are Cl2 and HOCl while in alkaline solution effectively only ClO- is present.

Chlorine dioxide
Chlorine dioxide is an active oxidising biocide,

has less damaging effects to the environment and human health than chlorine It does not form hydrochlorous acids in water;
It exists as dissolved chlorine dioxide, a compound that is a more reactive biocide at higher pH ranges. Chlorine dioxide is an explosive gas, and therefore it has to be produced or generated on site, by means of the following reactions: Cl2 + 2 NaClO2 -> 2 NaCl + 2 ClO2 or 2 HCl + 3 NaOCl + NaClO2 -> 2 ClO2 + 4 NaCl + H2O.

Raw water to Clarified water

Aerator Raw water bay RW make up pumps Clarified water Clariflocculator Cl2 dosing

Alum/ PAC dosing Flash mixer

Clarification System

Motion of water in a Clari-flocculator

Clarification zone Flocculation zone

A view of Clari-flocculator

Flocculation zone

Clarification zone

SLUDGE TREATMENT

SLUDGE PIT

SLUDGE FROM CLARIFIERS

SLUDGE THICKENERS

DEWATERING CENTRIFUGES

DEWATERING CENTRIFUGE

SLUDGE CAKE FOR DISPOSAL

filtration
The process of removing suspended matter by passing through a suitable process material. Two types (i) Gravity filters (ii) pressure filters Filtering media used is sand ot anthracite.

Filter Media
Theoretically any inert granular material can be used for filtration. Quarts sand, Silica sand, anthracite coal, garnet may be used for filtration. Silica sand and anthracite are the types of filter media which are commonly used. At FGPS sand is used as filtering medium and filters are Gravity sand filters (GSF).

FILTERED WATER PRODUCTION

C L F W A T E R

GSF-A FILTERED WATER SUMP

GSF-B

GSF-C

Filter medium layers in GSF

1st layer - 50 mm X 37 mm gravel 2nd layer - 37 mm X 12 mm gravel 3rd layer 12 mm X 6 mm gravel

4th layer 6 mm X 2.5 mm grit

5th layer 0.35 mm X 0.5 mm sand

Pressure filter

Clarified water to Filtered water

GF Bed Clarified water FW sump Sand filters DW sump

Clari-flocculator
Cl2 Cl2 House Postchlorination FW pumps Filtered water DM water for Plant purpose To Township for drinking water DW pumps

DM PLANT

Turbidity & Free Cl2 check

Pore sizes of various membranes

Membrane pore sizes can vary from .1 to 5,000 nanometers (nm) depending on filter type. "Particle filtration" removes particles of 1,000 nm or larger. Microfiltration removes particles of 50 nm or larger. "Ultrafiltration" removes particles of roughly 3 nm or larger. "Nanofiltration" removes particles of 1 nm or larger. Reverse osmosis is in the final category of membrane filtration, "Hyperfiltration", and removes particles larger than .1 nm.

Lime soda softening

Ca and suspended solids can be reduced Partial reduction of silica also takes place. Use of lime removes-alkaline hardness due to the bicarbonates of Ca and Mg -Non alkaline hardness due to MgSO4 -CO2 Use of soda Ash removes non alkaline hardness due to CaSO4.

Reactions
Use of lime CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2 Unslaked lime hydrated lime Ca(OH)2+ Ca(HCO3)2 = 2CaCO3+2H2O 2Ca(OH)2 +Mg(HCO3)2= 2CaCO3 +Mg(OH)2 +2H2O Ca(OH)2+MgSO4 =CaSO4 +Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2+MgCl2 =CaCl2 + Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2+CO2 = CaCO3 + H2O Ca(OH)2+ 2NaHCO3 = CaCO3+2H2O +Na2CO3

Use of soda Ash Na2CO3+CaSO4 = CaCO3 +Na2SO4 Na2CO3+CaCl2 = CaCO3 +2NaCl Use of sodium AluminateNa2Al2O4+ 4 H2O =2NaOH + 2Al(OH)3 Na2Al2O4 + Ca(OH)2 = CaAl2O4 + 2NaOH CaAl2O4 + 4 H2O =2Al(OH)3 + Ca(OH)2

What are micro-organisms?

All living creatures consist of cells. Cells are very small basic units of life. They are the smallest structures capable of basic life processes, such as taking in nutrients and expelling waste. Cells can only be made visible by microscopes. Micro-organisms are organisms that usually consist of one single cell. Because of this, they are often referred to as "single-celled organisms".

Types of microrganisms
Microrganisms are divided up by their cell characteristics, in the same way as plants and animals. There are two kinds of microrganisms. The first kind is the eukaryotic organism (protista). Eukaryotic- the cells they consist of contain nucleuses and other internal parts, surrounded by membranes. The second kind of microrganisms is the Prokaryotic organism (monera). Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a membrane, but they contain no nucleus or other internal parts

Monera-Bacteria
Bacteria are very important for other organisms, because they break down organic matter. During this process nutrients are formed, which are reused by plants and animals. Some of the bacteria that live on earth can cause disease, but most of them are quite useful as they aid animals in the decomposition of food in their bodies. Bacteria differ from other types of cells in the fact that they do not have a nucleus.

protists -amoebas, diatoms, algae and protozoa These can be a danger to human and animal health, as certain protists can cause diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness. There are a wide variety of protists, and they inhabit many different environments; fresh water, seawater, soils, and the intestinal tracts of animals, where they perform crucial digestive processes. Many species of protists can produce their own nutrients by the process of photosynthesis and many protists can also move around on their own accord. Protists vary greatly in size and shape; the green alga Nanochlorum is only 0.01 mm long, but giant kelps can grow to 65 m or more in length.

Use of microrganisms Microrganisms can be used to decompose contaminants in wastewater. This kind of water treatment is called biological water treatment. During biological water treatment microrganisms break down organic matter, nitrates and phosphates.

Removal of ammonium and nitrates

The removal of ammonium and nitrates is quite complex. It is a water treatment process that takes both aerobic and anaerobic conversion to remove the contaminants. In the aerobic conversion stage there are two bacterial species involved. Firstly, Nitrosomonas bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite. Secondly, Nitrobacter bacteria convert nitrite to nitrate. These two processes together are commonly known as the nitrification process. After that, the anaerobic bacteria take over. These bacteria convert nitrate to atmospheric nitrogen gas. This process is called denitrification. Denitrification is accomplished with many anaerobic bacteria, such as Achromobacter, Bacillus and Pseudomonas. The first stage of denitrification is the reverse of the nitrification process, it converts nitrate back to nitrite. The second stage of denitrification converts nitrite to nitrogen gas (N2).

Removal of phosphates
Phosphates can be removed from wastewater by an aerobic (oxygen-dependent) bacterium, called Acinetobacter. This bacterium accumulates polyphosphates in the cell tissues. The Acinetobacter can take up a higher amount of phosphates than it needs for its cell synthesis. The extra amounts of phosphates are stored in the cells as polyphosphates. The storage of polyphosphates causes the Acinetobacter to be able to temporarily survive anaerobic circumstances. When the Acinetobacter resides in an anaerobic zone in the wastewater, it takes up fatty acids to store them as spare substances. During this process, polyphosphates are decomposed for energy supply, causing phosphates to be released into the aerobic zone. When the Acinetobacter enters the aerobic zone it takes up phosphates and stores them as polyphosphates in the cell tissues. This causes the phosphate content of the wastewater to decrease.

Organic matter
Organic matter present in surface water is mostly of vegetable and animal origin and consists essentially of large molecular weight carboxylic acids collectively termed as humic and fulvic acids. carry negative charge and therefore are adsorbed by a strong base resin in DM plant. Organic matter is harmful if present in boiler feed water as it breaks down in the boiler drum, depresses the pH and causes corrosion. A lower pH increases the risk of silica carry-over in steam.

Removal of Organic matter

Chlorination- added as liq Chlorine or Bleaching powder .destroys the bacteria or any other micro organism present. Ozonization UV Light

Removal of organic matter

Biological water purification is performed to lower the organic load of dissolved organic compounds. Microrganisms, mainly bacteria, do the decomposition of these compounds. There are two main categories of biological treatment: aerobic treatment and anaerobic treatment. Aerobic water treatment means decomposition of organic matter by bacteria that need oxygen during the decomposition process. Anaerobic water treatment means decomposition of organic matter by microrganisms that do not use oxygen. In aerobic systems the water is aerated with compressed air whereas anaerobic systems run under oxygen free conditions.

Chlorination of water
Cl2 + H2O -> HOCl + HCl If the pH of the wastewater is greater than 8, the hypochlorus acid will dissociate to yield hypochlorite ion HOCl <-> H+ + OCl If ammonia is present in the wastewater effluent, then the hypochlorus acid will react to form one three types of chloramines depending on the pH, temperature, and reaction time. Monochloramine and dichloramine are formed in the pH range of 4.5 to 8.5, however, monochloramine is most common when the pH is above 8. When the pH of the wastewater is below 4.5, the most common form of chloramine is trichloramine which produces a very foul odor. Monochloramine: NH3 + HOCl -> NH2Cl + H2O Dichloramine: NH2Cl + 2HOCl -> NHCl2 + 2H2O Trichloramine: NHCl2 + 3HOCl -> NHCl3 + 3H2O Chloramines are an effective disinfectant against bacteria but not against viruses. As a result, it is necessary to add more chlorine to the wastewater to prevent the formation of chloramines and form other stronger forms of disinfectants. 2NH2Cl + HOCl -> N2 + 6HCl + H2O

Oxidizing Biocides
Chlorine -diffuses through the cell walls of microorganism reaching the cytoplasm to produce a chemically stable nitrogen-chlorine bond with the cell proteins. The optimum pH values of cooling water in which chlorine dosing is best effective, is 6.5 to 7.5 Certain micro-organisms sometime become immune to the regular dose of chlorine so Shock Chlorination employing heavy doses of chlorine for few hours is done to kill the micro-organisms

Chlorine dioxide
Preparation 2NaClO2 + Cl2 2ClO2 + 2 NaCl Structure-

Chlorine gas is reacted with a 25% sodium chlorite solution to produce chlorine dioxide.

in water treatment is used as a pre-oxidant prior to chlorination of drinking water to destroy natural water impurities that produce tri-halomethanes on exposure to free chlorine Chlorine dioxide is also superior to chlorine when operating above pH 7 due to presence of ammonia Chlorine dioxide is used in many industrial water treatment applications as a biocide including cooling towers Chlorine dioxide is less corrosive than chlorine and superior for the control of legionella bacteria. It is more effective as a disinfectant than chlorine in most circumstances against water borne pathogenic microbes such as viruses , bacteria and protozoa

Ozone treatment
An oxygen molecule (O2) in the stratosphere is broken into 2 oxygen atoms (O + O) by absorbing ultraviolet light energy from the sun. The oxygen atom (O) is now free to react with an oxygen molecule (O2) to create an ozone molecule (O3). O2 + UV => O + O O + O2 => O3

Ozone generation
Ozone generation by corona-discharge ozone is produced from oxygen as a direct result of electrical discharge. This corona-discharge ruptures the stable oxygen molecule and forms two oxygen radicals. These radicals can combine with oxygen molecules to form ozone.

Colloidal silica
Escapes clarifier system and resin treatment. Silica polymerize into colloids which behave differently than silica in solutions Colloids undetectable by colorimetric testing for reactive silica Colloids also dont carry any charge so escape resin treatment. Colloids break down at high temp and pressure

Colloidal silica
Colloidal silica is non-ionic, and is found in surface waters. It creates problems in water treatment because of its stability as an un-ionized compound, which makes it difficult to remove using ion exchange processes. It can cause some resin fouling where colloidal silica levels are very high. Colloidal silica slips through the demineralisation (DM) plant to get converted into reactive silica at high temperature and pressure leading to severe problems in boilers.

Harmful impacts
When reverse osmosis (RO) plants are used in water treatment, colloidal silica and associated impurities can foul RO membranes leading to drop in productivity. Colloidal particles are small particles, intermediate in size between true solutions and suspended matter. They can be assumed to be any particle larger than 10 A units and < 1micron in diameter

formation of colloidal silica

As water passes through and over various soils the formation of carbon dioxide and organic acids resulting from microbial activity results in acid degradation of the silicate minerals (particularly clay particles). This acid attack on minerals dissolves the iron, aluminum etc. and interaction of these components with silica results in the formation of colloidal silica that is stabilised with a coating of organic matter.

Measurement of Colloidal silica

Estimation of non-reactive silica in water is often difficult as it is present in very small quantities (generally < 1.0 mg/l). Non-reactive silica is measured indirectly by the difference between total silica (reactive silica + colloidal silica) and reactive silica. Total silica may be measured by solubilising non-reactive silica by reacting it with hydrofluoric acid (HF) and then employing usual calorimetric procedures.

Impact of c.silica
Colloidal silica as such does not affect the ion exchange process but as it is a complex with organic matter, it can sometimes foul the anionic resin and some part of it then passes through the resin and reaches downstream equipment

removing/reducing colloidal silica

Coagulation/Flocculation: Difficulties in removing non-reactive silica arise from the fact that it is not present as a simple colloidal particle and is not amenable to coagulation under normal conditions. It is mostly present as hydrated silica associated with organic matter naturally present in soil and hydrated oxides of iron & aluminum. Coagulation, at best, is a physical process and, under ideal conditions, one can therefore expect to remove up to 80 to 90% of non-reactive silica present in water.

 Retention time in clarifiers 1 to 4 hrs depending on water requirements and water quality. Proper operation of clarifiers can reduce Ca to 35-40 ppm as CaCO3 and turbidity < 10 NTU. Filtration can reduce turbidity to <1 . Backwashing of filters if delta P > 10 psi from normal. ACF- good breeding ground for bacteria which escaped oxidising biocide, so regular checking for organics and microbiological content. ACF produced from different minerals and one type of ACF will have different properties from other. If high iron and Mn and dissolved gases like CO2,NH3,H2S than aeration recommended to remove these impurities.For high levels of these impurities Mn greensand required

 Sodium phosphate and iron oxide which act as insulators leading to increase in temp. In coagulation- charge neutralisation- floc formation due to Van der walls force of attraction Silica is removed as Mg Silicate in lime Ca(OH)2 , Soda (Na2CO3) softening process. Removal of silica depends upon the conc of Magnesium in water. Supplemental silica removal chemicals like MgO or MgCo3 are added to enhance silica removal.

Deionization and softening

Deionisation is commonly processed through ion exchange. Ion exchange systems consist of a tank with small beds of synthetic resin, which is treated to selectively absorb certain cations or anions and replace them by counter-ions. The process of ion exchange lasts, until all available spaces are filled up with ions. The ion-exchanging device than has to be regenerated by suitable chemicals.

DM PLANT
From filter water pumps
For circuit rinse

ACF

WAC

SAC

WBA

SBA

MB

Air DEGASSER
To main plant for boiler make up

DM water storage tank

ion exchange reactions

the ion exchange reactions are reversible.
The degree the reaction proceeds to the right will depend on the resins preference. or selectivity, for cations compared with its preference for hydrogen ions. strong acid resins have a preference for cations(Ca++ or Mg++) over hydrogen. Despite this preference, the resin can be converted back to the hydrogen form by contact with a concentrated solution of HCl or H2SO4

Resins
Gel type -8% cross linking with divinyl benzene whereas macroporous have 12-20% cross linkage. SAC resins have an affinity for ions over H+ so Cations removal .Act as strong acid so will split the salt and will remove the cationic part. Affinity order Ca++>Mg++>Na+ WAC-Affinity order H+> Ca++>Mg++>Na+ so removes only those cations which have strong affinity for H+ like Bicarbonate . It is very useful in high alkalinity waters and very high regeneration efficiency.

Attachment of Functional Group.

Following the formation of the styrene/divinyl benzene copolymer, functionalization of the polymer structure is done to convert the polymer into an ion exchange resin. Functionalities added to the copolymer include sulfonate, quaternary amine, and tertiary amine groups.

Types of resins
There are four main types differing in their functional groups:

strongly acidic (typically, sulfonic acid groups, eg. sodium polystyrene sulfonate) strongly basic, (quaternary amino groups, for example, trimethylammonium groups)
weakly acidic (carboxylic acid groups) weakly basic (primary, secondary, and/or ternary amino groups, eg. polyethylene amine)

resins

 WBA are weak bases so react with strong acids to remove mainly Cl- and SO4--.(weak bases from solution) Strong regeneration efficiency To remove organics from water and to save SBA from getting fouled. Organics are regenerated from WBA more efficiently than from SBA An MB is collections of millions of Cation / anion units, reduce from ppm to ppb levels. Bands of different resins formed like Ca++ Mg++ Na+

WBA SBA

Weak Acid Cation Resin

Weak acid cation resins are utilized to remove cations (primarily calcium and magnesium) which are bound to alkalinity. However, they also remove monovalent cations (sodium and potassium) when total alkalinity exceeds total hardness. When sulfuric acid is employed, it first must be diluted to 0.5-1.0% (prior to its introduction to the weak acid resin) in order to limit calcium sulfate fouling potential.

CATION EXCHANGER AND ANION EXCHANGER SERVICE AND REGENERATION

Regeneration line to weak
exchanger
DF - Down Flow

Weak

Strong

NF - Nozzle flushing

Air Vent
SI DF

NF

Air Vent

BI
BO RO SO

SI

BI
Acid/Alkali injection

Drain

BO RO Drain

SO

MIXED BED
SERVICE AND REGENERATION

Alkali injection

SI NF
Air

Air Vent

Drain

Acid injection

SO

MIXED BED
RESIN SEPARATION

ANION EXCHANGE RESIN CATION EXCHANGE RESIN

THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The cation ion exchange manufacturing process consists of the following steps: Polymerization (styrene and divinylbenzene ) Sulfonation (Introduction of SO3H group) Neutralization(treatment with NaOH) rinse. (To remove extra NaOH)

 When soap comes in contact with calcium and magnesium, a curd forms (precipitate ). Industrially, hardness forms scale on pipes, boilers, heat exchangers and cooling towers. deposits will reduce the heat transfer capabilities of a system as well as increase the cost of operating the system . as hardness increases so does the potential for scaling.

THE SOFTENING PROCESS

Softening
Sometimes chemicals are included to reduce the hardness or mineral content of drinking water. This usually involves the exchange of sodium for calcium and magnesium and, sometimes, the removal of iron and manganese.

features
Gel-type softening resins are translucent (light will pass through bead) while macroporous softening resins are opaque. Softening resin works on the principle of selectivity Monovalent ions, like sodium have one positive charge, and are held onto the resin less tightly than divalent molecules like calcium and magnesium (which have two positive charges). calcium ion will displace a sodium ion .

Cont
the greater the molecular weight, the greater the affinity of the resin for this ion. Calcium will displace magnesium since calcium has a molecular weight of 40.1 and magnesium has a molecular weight of 24.3. In the softening process, two sodium ions are released for one calcium ion or one magnesium ion

Cont
The waste regenerant will contain the excess sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium chloride (CaCl2) and magnesium chloride . no matter how much salt is used in the regeneration process; the resin will never fully regenerate to the sodium form.

DEMINERALISATION
In ACF Bed removes the residual Cl2 and fine turbidity present in filtered water After ACF, water enters the SAC Bed, where the Cations in water are replaced with H+ as follows: R H + Na Cl R Na + HCl 2 R H + CaSO4 R2Ca + H2SO4 2 R H + Ca(HCO3)2 R2Ca + 2H2CO3

DEMINERALISATION
All Cations are exchanged in SAC Bed to form acids like HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 etc. Bicarbonate is exchanged in SAC form carbonic acid (H2CO3). In the Degasser the water is sprayed from top and air blow (which has very less CO2 content) is given in counter direction.

The process is similar to removal of dissolved O2 in Deaerator using steam.

H2CO3 H2O + CO2

DEMINERALISATION
The degassed water is then pumped through SBA Bed, where anions are replaced with OH- to form water as given below: R-OH + HCl RCl + H2O 2 R-OH + H2SO4 R2SO4 +2H2O

MIXED BED
Mixed Bed (MB) contains a mixture of SAC and SBA resins and act as polishing unit for water from SBA. The output of MB is Demineralised Water and is practically free from all ions. DM water is having a conductivity <0.06 S/cm and a pH of 6.8-7.0

REGENERATION OF DM-STREAMS
For regenerating the Resin beds, acid and alkali are used. SAC resin bed is regenerated using HCl. Anion bed (SBA) is regenerated by NaOH injection. The regeneration effluent containing acid and alkali is neutralized in N-pit and pumped to ETP for disposal.

degasification
Alkalinity on passing through cation beds turns into CO2, so economical to remove before anion removal Forced draft or vacuum degasification. In former water in droplets falls and air passes through removing CO2 and concentrating with O2 while in other removal of gases by vacuum .

 Cocurrent- most strongly held ions to pass through whole resin attaching and detaching several times which ultimately need more quantity of acid. Silica removal enhanced by heating the regenerant water to 120 F for type I and 105 for type II resins SAC & SBA require 3 times the H+ or OHof ionic loading whereas WAC & WBA require stoichiometric concentrations

regeneration

Alkalinity
Alkalinity is based upon the bicarbonate ion (HCO3), the carbonate ion (CO3), and the hydroxide ion (OH). The bicarbonate ion will be prevalent in water when the pH ranges from 4.3 to 8.3. When the pH exceeds 8.3, CO3 becomes prevalent at pH above of 10 OH will exist.

chemical oxygen demand (COD)

Definition
Standard method for indirect measurement of the amount of pollution (that cannot be oxidized biologically) in a sample of water. COD test procedure is based on the chemicaldecomposition of organic and inorganic contaminants, dissolved or suspended in water. The result of a COD test indicates the amount of water dissolved oxygen (expressed as parts per million or milligrams per liter of water) consumed by the contaminants, during two hours of decomposition from a solution of boiling potassium dichromate. Higher the COD, higher the amount of pollution in the test sample. For the contaminants that can be oxidized biologically, biological oxygen demand (BOD) method is used

Pore sizes
Membrane pore sizes can vary from .1 to 5,000 nanometers (nm) depending on filter type. "Particle filtration" removes particles of 1,000 nm or larger. Microfiltration removes particles of 50 nm or larger. "Ultrafiltration" removes particles of roughly 3 nm or larger. "Nanofiltration" removes particles of 1 nm or larger. Reverse osmosis is in the final category of membrane filtration, "Hyperfiltration", and removes particles larger than .1 nm. FRP-Fibre Glass reinforced plastic

Ultra Filtration
The best way of ensuring maximum removal of non-reactive silica is to remove the bulk of it in the pretreatment plant polish it with an ultra filtration (UF) system installed at the outlet of the mixed bed (MB) unit. UF is a pressure activated process employing a semi-permeable membrane with asymmetric structure and can be effectively used for removal of non-reactive silica

UF membrane

 In the RO process, water from a pressurized saline solution is separated from the dissolved salts by passing through a water-permeable membrane. The permeate (the liquid flowing through the membrane) is directed to flow through the membrane by the pressure differential created between the pressurized feedwater and the product water, which is at near-atmospheric pressure. The remaining feedwater continues through the pressurized side of the reactor as brine. No heating or phase change takes place. The major energy requirement is for the initial pressurization of the feedwater. For brackish water desalination the operating pressures range from 250 to 400 psi, and for seawater desalination from 800 to 1 000 psi.

RO process

To reduce the concentration of dissolved salts remaining, a portion of this concentrated feedwater-brine solution is withdrawn from the container.

Different stages of RO Process

A reverse osmosis system consists of four major components/processes: (1) pretreatment, (2) pressurization, (3) membrane separation, and (4) posttreatment stabilization . Pretreatment: The incoming feedwater is pretreated to be compatible with the membranes by removing suspended solids, adjusting the pH, and adding a threshold inhibitor to control scaling caused by constituents such as calcium sulphate. Pressurization: The pump raises the pressure of the pretreated feedwater to an operating pressure appropriate for the membrane and the salinity of the feedwater .

 Separation: The permeable membranes inhibit the passage of dissolved salts while permitting the desalinated product water to pass through. Applying feedwater to the membrane assembly results in a freshwater product stream and a concentrated brine reject stream. Two of the most popular membranes are spiral wound and hollow fine fiber. They are generally made of cellulose acetate, aromatic polyamides, or, nowadays, thin film polymer composites. Stabilization: The product water from the membrane assembly usually requires pH adjustment and degasification . The product passes through an aeration column in which the pH is elevated from a value of approximately 5 to a value close to 7

New membranes are being designed to operate at higher pressures (7 to 8.5 atm) and with greater efficiencies (removing 60% to 75% of the salt plus nearly all organics, viruses, bacteria, and other chemical pollutants). The main operational concern related to the use of reverse osmosis units is fouling. Fouling is caused when membrane pores are clogged by salts or obstructed by suspended particulates. It limits the amount of water that can be treated before cleaning is required. Membrane fouling can be corrected by backwashing or cleaning (about every 4 months), and by replacement of the cartridge filter elements (about every 8 weeks). The lifetime of a membrane has been reported to be 2 to 3 years,

Effectiveness of the Technology

Earlier, it was tough to separate product waters from 90% of the salt in feedwater at total dissolved solids (TDS) levels of 1 500 mg/1, using pressures of 600 psi and a flux through the membrane of 18 l/m2/day. Today, typical brackish installations can separate 98% of the salt from feedwater at TDS levels of 2 500 to 3 000 mg/1, using pressures of 13.6 to 17 atm and a flux of 24 l/m2/day and guaranteeing to do it for 5 years without having to replace the membrane. Today's state-of-the-art technology uses thin film composite membranes in place of the older cellulose acetate and polyamide membranes. The composite membranes work over a wider range of pH, at higher temperatures, and within broader chemical limits. In general, the recovery efficiency of RO desalination plants increases with time as long as there is no fouling of the membrane.

Advantages of RO
The processing system is simple; the only complicating factor is finding or producing a clean supply of feedwater to minimize the need for frequent cleaning of the membrane. Low maintenance, nonmetallic materials are used in construction. Energy use to process brackish water ranges from 1 to 3 kWh per 1 0001 of product water. RO technologies can make use of an almost unlimited and reliable water source, the sea. RO technologies can be used to remove organic and inorganic contaminants. Aside from the need to dispose of the brine, RO has a negligible environmental impact. The technology makes minimal use of chemicals.

Disadvantages
The membranes are sensitive to abuse. The feedwater usually needs to be pretreated to remove particulates (in order to prolong membrane life). There may be interruptions of service during stormy weather (which may increase particulate resuspension and the amount of suspended solids in the feedwater) for plants that use seawater. . Brine must be carefully disposed of to avoid deleterious environmental impacts. There is a risk of bacterial contamination of the membranes; while bacteria are retained in the brine stream, bacterial growth on the membrane itself can introduce tastes and odors into the product water RO technologies require a reliable energy source. Desalination technologies have a high cost when compared to other methods, such as groundwater extraction or rainwater harvesting.

Suspended solids and TDS

Suspended solids represent the undissolved matter in water, including dirt, silt, biological growth, vegetation, and insoluble organic matter. When minerals dissolve in water, ions are formed. The sum of all minerals or ions in the water in the total dissolved solids or the TDS. Iron can be soluble or insoluble. Insoluble iron can clog valves and strainers and can cause excessive sludge build up in low lying areas of a water system. It also leads to boiler deposits that can cause tube failure. Soluble iron can interfere in many processes, such as printing or the dying of cloth. In domestic water systems, porcelain fixtures can be stained by as little as 0.25 ppm of iron.

 Water Hardness is the measure of calcium and magnesium content as calcium carbonate equivalents. Water Hardness is the primary source of scale in boiler equipment. Silica in boiler feedwater can also cause hard dense scale with a high resistance to heat transfer. Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize strong acid. In natural waters, the capacity is attributable to bases, such as bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides; as well as silicates, borates, ammonia, phosphates, and organic bases. These bases, especially bicarbonates and carbonates, break down to form carbon dioxide in steam, which is a major factor in the corrosion of condensate lines. Alkalinity also contributes to foaming and carryover in boilers.

Acid Rain
As rain passes through the atmosphere it picks up gasses such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and oxygen etc. Many of the gasses assimilated by a drop of rain are acidic in nature or react with other compounds to form acids, and this is why rain water will generally have a pH below 7. When the drop of water reaches the surface of the earth it starts to pick-up certain substances that it contacts. For example, as water percolates through the soil it may come in contact with a lime stone (calcium carbonate) deposit. The calcium carbonate will react with CO2, forming calcium bicarbonate which is a primary constituent of hardness in water.

Resin specs
The total capacity is the resins theoretical capacity. Unit = meq/ml Required 1.9 - 2.0 Water Retention, % 45 - 48 The water retention is the amount of water that is found inside the bead. standard softening resin is made up of approximately 44 - 48% water. If the resin is allowed to dry out a 40% reduction in resin volume will result.

Cont..
The bead count measures the percentage of whole perfect beads. Bead Count, % Whole 95 Excessive amounts of broken beads will cause pressure drop and channeling in the bed. The screen distribution or particle size distribution is a parameter that is run to show bead size Standard softening resin have a distribution of 16 U.S. standard mesh to 50 U.S. standard mesh. This equates out to be 0.3 mm to 1.2 mm in diameter. The percentage of -50 mesh resin is important, since the finer the resin the greater the pressure drop.

 pH is important since it is an indication of whether or not the resin was properly neutralized and rinsed. Resin is soaked in a neutral brine solution. If the pH drops below 7 a portion of the softening resin is still in the hydrogen form. This occurs since the sodium is picked up by the resin and hydrogen is released in its place. The hydrogen combines with the chloride from the salt solution to form hydrochloric acid. If a high pH is detected, the NaOH (caustic) was not completely rinsed from the resin. The pH range for this test should fall between 6.5 and 9.5.

 Gel-type softening resins are translucent (light will pass through bead) while macroporous softening resins are opaque. Any type of resin can be manufactured with different percentages of crosslinking. However, macroporous resins are usually manufactured to be stronger, requiring higher crosslinking. The DVB concentration will generally run from 10 to 20%. With this greater crosslinking the resin becomes more resistant to oxidation from substances like chlorine

 TDS is expressed as CaCO3. To check the water analysis for accuracy, the total cations (Ca, Mg, K and Na) as CaCO3 should be equivalent to the TDS. why when caustic (NaOH) is added to acidic water and the pH is elevated to 8 that no OH alkalinity exist? The answer goes back to pH. No OH alkalinity can exist at this pH. The OH will react with CO2 to form HCO3, at this pH.

 Strong Acid Cation -The hydrogen and sodium forms of strong acid resins are highly dissociated and the exchangeable Na+ and H+ are readily available for exchange over the entire pH range. The exchange capacity of strong acid resins is independent of solution pH. Weak Acid Cation Basins- Weak acid resins exhibit a much higher affinity for hydrogen ions than do strong acid resins. This characteristic allows for regeneration to the hydrogen form with significantly less acid than is required for strong acid resins. Almost complete regeneration can be accomplished with stoichiometric amounts of acid. The degree of dissociation of a weak acid resin is strongly influenced by the solution pH. Consequently, resin capacity depends in part on solution pH. a typical weak acid resin has limited capacity below a pH of 6.0. making it unsuitable for deionizing acidic metal finishing wastewater.

Exchange capacity

Dissolved Oxygen in Fresh Water

Alkalinity
Alkalinity is based upon the bicarbonate ion (HCO3), the carbonate ion (CO3), and the hydroxide ion (OH). The bicarbonate ion will be prevalent in water when the pH ranges from 4.3 to 8.3. When the pH exceeds 8.3, CO3 becomes prevalent at pH above of 10 OH will exist.

CaCO3 equivalent, the industry standard

permits the comparison of one ion to another performed by multiplying the ion by a conversion factor. These conversion factors are derived from the equivalent weight of the ion which is divided into the equivalent weight of CaCO3 Ca has a conversion factor of 2.5.