CH 019

Part 4: Animal form and function Chapter 19: Animal reproduction
Copyright 2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint slides to accompany Biology: An Australian focus 4e by Knox, Ladiges, Evans and Saint Slides prepared by Karen Burke da Silva, Flinders University
19-1
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
one parent new individuals genetically identical to parent and to each other
Sexual reproduction
two parents new individuals genetically unique (novel combination of genes from both parents)
19-2
Asexual reproduction
New individuals produced through mitotic cell division Limited genetic diversity Occurs by:
regeneration budding parthenogenesis
19-3
Regeneration
Production of new individuals
cellular replication by mitosis differentiation of tissues
Reproduction by fragmentation
example: aquatic annelids
Regeneration of individuals from body parts

example: starfish
19-4
Budding
outgrowth of body wall of parent
Break off to form individual

example: Hydra
Remain attached to form part of colony

example: corals
19-5
Parthenogenesis
egg cells develop into embryos without fertilisation offspring usually female
Obligate parthenogenesis
example: Heteronotia binoei (Binoes gecko)
Cyclical parthenogenesis
example: some species of aphids
19-6
Parthenogenesis (cont.)
Ants, bees and wasps (Hymenoptera)
females produced by sexual reproduction males produced by asexual reproduction (parthenogenesis)
Unfertilised eggs (n)

undergo mitosis, but do not divide into two cells nuclei fuse to produce a diploid cell (2n) cell develops as if fertilised
19-7
Sexual reproduction
New individuals produced through fusion of haploid cells (gametes) from parents
egg (ovum) sperm (spermatozoon)
Increases genetic diversity
19-8
Gametes
Two types of gametes Similar structure
isogamy
Different structure
anisogamy smaller of gamete pair = male
19-9
Fig. 19.5a & d: Gametes
19-10
Male and female

Different mating types = sex
male, female
Males
produce sperm only
Females
produce eggs only
19-11
Mating systems
Organisms with separate sexes
dioecious
Organisms with both sexes in one individual

monoecious or hermaphroditic
19-12
Hermaphroditism
Hermaphrodites produce both male and female gametes Problems of self-fertilisation limited by separation of male and female gametes
anatomy
male and female reproductive tracts separate
behaviour
complex courtship and mating
time
eggs become fertile after sperm are no longer functional sex change
19-13
Changing sex
Some species avoid self-fertilisation by sex changes
alternate between male and female at different stages of life cycle
Protandry: male female

Example: clownfish
Protogyny: female male

Example: parrot fish
19-14
Reproductive strategies
Developmental strategies vary Indirect development
offspring pass through one or more larval stages before they attain adult form
Direct development
offspring hatch or are born resembling miniature adults
19-15
Indirect development
Many eggs produced
small amount of yolk in each egg limits time for embryonic development
Free-living larval forms Metamorphosis (change in form from larva to adult)

examples: butterflies, flies, beetles, frogs
19-16
Fig. 19.8: Indirect development
19-17
Direct development
Few eggs produced
large amount of yolk in each egg embryo nourished by yolk
Embryo develops in egg Hatches/born with adult form

examples: land snails, reptiles, birds, mammals
19-18
Fig. 19.9: Direct development
Copyright 18.9 Jan Aldenhoven/AUSCAPE
19-19
Development in mammals
Direct development
but eggs have small amount of yolk
Young develop in uterus Nutrients provided to developing young

before birth
uterine secretions placenta
after birth
milk
19-20
Development in mammals (cont.)

Variation in patterns of reproduction
young born at different stages of development
Marsupials and eutherians

live young (viviparous)
19-21
Development in mammals (cont.)

Monotremes
lay eggs (oviparous)
19-22
The costs of sexual reproduction

Parental investment in reproduction
varies depending on reproductive strategy
Includes
production of gametes increased risk of predation competition for mates parental care
Cost must not outweigh benefit Caring for young

increases chances of offspring surviving to maturity reduces ability of one (or both) parents to find food and avoid predators
19-23
Question 1:
What benefits of sexual reproduction would outweigh the costs? a) Increased ability to produce genetic diversity b) Ability to produce variable offspring which could have a greater chance of success in a new environment c) Reduction in deleterious mutations having an effect on offspring d) All of the above
19-24
Gametogenesis
Primary sex organs = gonads Male gonad = testis
produces sperm (spermatozoa)
Female gonad = ovary

produces eggs (ova)
Process of gamete production = gametogenesis

spermatogenesis oogenesis
19-25
Mitotic divisions
Primordial germ cells undergo a series of mitotic divisions Give rise to multiple diploid (2n) oogonia/ spermatogonia After the final mitotic division, these cells are termed oocytes/spermatocytes
19-26
Meiotic division
Primary oocyte (product of mitotic divisions) First meiotic division
primary oocyte gives rise to
secondary oocyte first polar body
Second meiotic division

secondary oocyte gives rise to
ovum (egg) second polar body
first polar body gives rise to

polar bodies
19-27
Meiotic division (cont.)

Primary spermatocyte (product of mitotic divisions) First meiotic division
primary spermatocyte gives rise to
secondary spermatocytes
Second meiotic division

secondary spermatocytes give rise to
spermatids
19-28
Fig. 19.20a: Oogenesis
19-29
Fig. 19.20b: Spermatogenesis
19-30
Maturation of gametes
Spermatocyte
loss of most of cytoplasm development of long flagellum (tail) formation of secretory acrosome at anterior of head section
Oocyte
increase in organelles increase in nutritive materials development of protective extracellular membranes, e.g. vitelline membrane
19-31
Fertilisation
Fusion of egg and sperm Egg activation
inactive egg is activated by fusion of plasma membranes of egg and sperm resumes synthetic activity
Nuclear fusion
pronuclei of egg and sperm fuse creates diploid zygote
19-32
Fig. 19.25: Fertilisation
19-33
Methods of fertilisation
Methods of bringing egg and sperm together External fertilisation
takes place outside body examples: corals, frogs
Internal fertilisation
takes place inside body examples: land snails, mammals
19-34
Internal fertilisation
Sperm must be transferred to female reproductive tract Intromittent organ
penis, claspers
Spermatophore
packet of sperm
Injected through body wall

example: leeches
19-35
Question 2:
Which of the following is/are disadvantages of internal fertilisation? a) gametes and embryo will be prevented from desiccation b) independence from external water source c) complicated behaviour must be evolved to bring the male and female into intimate contact d) the need for an intromittent organ
19-36
Summary
Asexual reproduction means having a single parent Sexual reproduction requires two parents Reproduction can be costly Successful reproduction between male and female animals requires the proper timing and control of a complex sequence of events Animals employ different strategies to maximise their chances of reproductive success
19-37

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Part 4: Animal form and function Chapter 19: Animal reproduction

Regeneration of individuals from body parts

Break off to form individual

Remain attached to form part of colony

Unfertilised eggs (n)

Increases genetic diversity

Fig. 19.5a & d: Gametes

Male and female

Organisms with both sexes in one individual

Protandry: male female

Protogyny: female male

Free-living larval forms Metamorphosis (change in form from larva to adult)

Fig. 19.8: Indirect development

Embryo develops in egg Hatches/born with adult form

Fig. 19.9: Direct development

Copyright 18.9 Jan Aldenhoven/AUSCAPE

Young develop in uterus Nutrients provided to developing young

Development in mammals (cont.)

Marsupials and eutherians

Development in mammals (cont.)

The costs of sexual reproduction

Cost must not outweigh benefit Caring for young

Female gonad = ovary

Process of gamete production = gametogenesis

Second meiotic division

first polar body gives rise to

Meiotic division (cont.)

Second meiotic division

Fig. 19.20a: Oogenesis

Fig. 19.20b: Spermatogenesis

Fig. 19.25: Fertilisation

Injected through body wall

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