Understanding Network Basics: Protocols

Module 4 Protocols
Understanding Network Basics
Protocols
Module 4 Protocols
Module 4 Protocols
Overview
This module deals with the network services and protocols and standardized protocols operating at the network layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. These network protocols are responsible for the endto-end transmission of data across an internetwork. The network protocols are generally designed for transmitting the data packets on LANs while the TCP/IP protocols are for Internet. The protocol standard is the specification or the set of rules for a particular type of communication. Different protocols describe various aspects of a single communication between the computers. Some standardized protocols which are used as an application protocol take form of independent protocols which run on every TCP/IP computer and enables IP to discover the hardware address of a computer using a particular IP address.
Lessons covered in this module

Network Services and Protocols Standardized protocols
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Lesson 1 TCP/IP Suits
Introduction
This lesson introduces the TCP/IP suite of protocols and layers. TCP/IP protocols were developed in the early 1980s and in 1983; they became standard protocols for ARPANET. TCP/IP typically refers to a suite of data communication protocols. TCP/IP originally is named from two of the most important protocols in the suite - the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). The TCP/IP protocol plays an important role in the development of the Internet.
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Lesson 1 TCP/IP Suits
Topics covered in this lesson are

TCP/IP Protocol TCP/IP Layers Internet Protocol (IP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
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Topic 1 TCP/IP Protocols
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP/IP) refers to the collection
of networking protocols that have been used to construct the global Internet. The TCP/IP protocols were developed in the 1970s specifically for the use on a packet-switching network built by the United States Department of Defense, the network was known as ARPANET, but it is now the Internet. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) publishes the TCP/IP standards in documents called Requests for Comments (RFCs).
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Topic 1 TCP/IP Protocols
The Benefits of Using TCP/IP

TCP/IP enables cross-platform, or heterogeneous, networking and has the following characteristics: Good failure recovery The ability to add networks without interrupting existing services High error-rate handling Platform independence Low data overhead
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Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

The TCP/IP protocol is the standard and the most accepted networking protocol.
TCP/IP protocols were developed before the OSI reference model, but both operate using the layers in the same way. Many TCP/IP application protocols were designed to access and transfer data between dissimilar systems. These protocols include HTTP, FTP and Telnet. Individual protocols make it easier to support a variety of computing platforms. TCP/IP has its own four layer networking model they are:

Link Internet Transport Layer Application Layer
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Link The TCP/IP protocol suite includes the link layer protocols like the Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). However, it maintains a layer that is comparable to the OSI data-link layer. TCP/IP protocol includes Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) which functions at the link layer, because it provides services to the internet layer above it. Internet The Internet layer is the same as network layer of OSI model. This layer is responsible for routing and delivery of data across networks. It allows communication across networks of the same and different types and carries out translations to deal with dissimilar data addressing schemes. IP (Internet Protocol) and ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) are both to be found at the Internet layer, however IP is the primary protocol operating at this layer.
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Transport Layer
The TCP/IP Transport layer is similar to that of OSI transport model, but with elements of the OSI session layer functionality. This layer provides an application layer delivery service. The TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol which provides error checking and flow control through a virtual link that it establishes and finally terminates. This gives a reliable service, therefore TCP would be utilized by File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). UDP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol which provides data transport with lower network traffic than TCP. The Application layer of TCP/IP is broadly equivalent to the application, presentation and session layers of the OSI model. It gives an application access to the communication environment. The protocols found at this layer are Telnet, FTP, SNMP, HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).
Application Layer
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The protocols that operate at the various layers of TCP/IP protocol stack are:
SLIP PPP ARP IP ICMP TCP UDP FTP HTTP
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Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
Serial Line Internet Protocol is a simple protocol which is designed to transmit signals over a serial connection (means a modem and a telephone line). It has a very low control overhead therefore; less information is added to the network layer data that it is transmitting. SLIP adds only 1 byte to every packet and it does not provide functions like error detection, network layer protocol identification, security and so on. This protocol works by transmitting an IP datagram received from the network layer and following it with a single frame byte called an End Delimiter. The End Delimiter is used to mark the end of each data packet.
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Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) In most cases, Point-to-point protocol is used when establishing a dial-up connection to an Internet Service Provider (ISP) accesses Internet. PPP is more complex and it is designed to provide a number of services than SLIP. Benefits of PPP compared to SLIP include:
It has extensible framing mechanism, compared to the single END character in SLIP. Specification of the encapsulated protocol, to allow multiple layer three protocols to be multiplexed on a single link. Error detection for each transmitted frame through the use of a CRC code in each frame header. A technique that helps negotiate link parameters which includes the maximum frame size is allowed. A process for testing links before datagram transmission takes place, and monitoring link quality. Support for verification of the connection using multiple authentication protocols and for additional optional features, including compression, encryption and link aggregation allowing two devices to use multiple physical links.
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Flag (1 byte): This indicates the transmission of a packet is about to initiate. Address (1 byte): This contains a value indicating that the data packet is addressed to all recipients. Control (1 byte): This field contains a code indicating the data packet contains an unnumbered information packet. Protocol (2 bytes): This identifies the protocol that generated and the information found in the Data field. Data and Pad (up to 1,500 bytes): This field contains information generated by the protocol identified in the protocol field, and padding Frame Check Sequence (2 or 4 bytes): This field contains a checksum value that the receiving system uses for error detection. Flag (1 byte): The last field indicates the completion of transmission of the data packets.
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Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for carrying the data generated by all the other TCP/IP protocols from the source system to its ultimate destination. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a protocol within the TCP/IP stacks which basically provides control, troubleshooting, and error messages. It is considered to be an internet layer protocol and that it carries no application data and its messages are carried within IP datagrams.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
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Transmission Control protocol and User Datagram Protocol
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) are the two protocols at the transport layer in TCP/IP protocol suite. In TCP, the transport layer protocols encapsulate the data received from the application layer protocol by applying a header. The application layer protocol passes the TCP data more than it can fit into a single packet, so the TCP splits the data into smaller pieces. Each piece is called a segment, the segments are collectively known as sequence. Each segment receives its own TCP header and passes down to the network layer for transmission. The TCP header at each segment is as shown in the following figure.
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User Datagram Protocol
User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless protocol which provides no guarantee of acknowledgement or flow control delivery. The UDP transactions consist of two messages a request and a reply. Therefore, the applications that use UDP must transport small amounts of data to fit into a single message. The UDP message format contains four fields which include source and destination ports, length, and checksum fields as shown in the figure.
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Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Internet Protocol is the core of the TCP/IP protocol suite. IP has
two major responsibilities of providing connectionless, delivery of datagrams through an internetwork; and providing fragmentation and reassembly of datagrams to support data links with different Maximum-Transmission Unit (MTU) sizes.

IP is the protocol responsible for transmitting data from its source to its destination on a TCP/IP network. It is a connectionless protocol, which transmits the messages to the destination without establishing a connection to the receiving system. It is connectionless because it carries the data generated by many other protocols. TCP/IP supports both connection-oriented and connectionless services.
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The data is passed down the transport layer protocol like TCP and UDP to the network layer. The IP encapsulates it by adding a header creating the datagram. The datagram is addressed to the system which makes use of the data, whether the system is on the local network or on other network. The datagram remains intact throughout the journey to its destination, except for few changes. When the datagram is created, IP passes it down to a datalink layer protocol for transmission through the network. During the transportation process, many other systems also might encapsulate the datagram in different data-link layer protocol headers, but the datagram remains intact.
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Functions of IP

Data Encapsulation Addressing: Routing / Indirect Delivery Fragmentation and Reassembly Protocol Identification
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IP Encapsulation
The data transmitted over an internet using IP is carried in messages called IP datagrams. IP generally uses a specific format for its datagrams. The IP datagram discussed here is IP version 4 which was defined in RFC 791. The header that IP applies to the data it receives from the transport layer protocol is usually 20 bytes long. The IPv4 datagram is conceptually divided into two parts - the header and the payload. The header contains addressing and control fields, while the payload carries the actual data to be sent over the internetwork.. The IP datagram format is described in the following table.
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The following are the functions of the datagram fields:
Version (4 bits): This field indicates the version of IP protocol used to create the datagram. IP Header Length (IHL 4 bits): This field specifies the length of the datagram header in 32-bit words. Typical length of the datagram header is 20 bytes, when the datagram includes additional options, it can be longer. This makes this field more efficient. Type Of Service (1 byte): The Type Of Service field contains a code that specifies the service priority for the datagram. Total Length (2bytes): This field specifies the length of the datagram of the entire IP packet including the data and header, in bytes. Identification (2 bytes): The Identification field contains an integer value which identifies the current datagram. This field is uses this value to reassemble the datagrams that helps to reassemble the datagram fragments during transmission.
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Flags (3 bits): The two low-order bits control fragmentation. The next bit specifies whether the packet is the last fragment in a series of fragmented packets. It is used to regulate the datagram fragmentation process.
Fragment Offset (13 bits): When the datagram is fragmented, the system inserts a value in this field which identifies this fragments place in the datagram. Time-To-Live (1 byte): This field specifies the number of networks which the datagram must be permitted to travel through on the way to its destination. Every router that forwards the datagram reduces the value of this field by one. It maintains a counter which gradually decreases down to zero, at which the datagram is discarded. This keeps the packets from looping endlessly. Protocol (1 byte): This filed contains a code which identifies the protocol that generates the information found in the Data field. It also indicates which upper-layer protocol receives the incoming packets after IP processing is complete. Header Checksum (2 bytes): This field contains a checksum value computed on the IP header fields only for error detection. It helps to ensure the IP header integrity.
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Source IP Address (4 bytes): This field specifies the IP Address of the system which generates the datagram. Destination IP Address (4 bytes): This field specifies the IP address of the system for which the datagram is destined. Options (variable): This field is present only when the datagram contains one or more of the 16 available IP options. The size and content of the field depends on the number and the nature of the options. It allows IP to support various options, such as security. Data (variable): This field contains the upper-layer information generated by the protocol specified in the Protocol field. The size of the field depends on the data-link layer protocol used by the network over which the system will transmit the datagram.
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IP Addressing
Internet Protocol is an upper layer network protocol which is unique for each host and communicates using TCP/IP. Each IP address has specific components and follows a basic format. The IP addresses are 32-bit long and are divided into network identifier and the host identifier. The 32-bit IP address is grouped into eight bits and four octets separated by dots, and represented in decimal format known as dotted decimal notation. Each bit in the octet has a binary weight. The minimum value for an octet is 0, and the maximum value for an octet is 255.
IP Address Format
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IP Address Format
The IP addresses that a system inserts into the source IP Address and the Destination IP address fields of the header, identifies that the system has created the packet and the system will eventually receive it respectively. If the packet is intended for a system on the local network, the Destination IP address refers to the same system as the Destination address in the data-link protocol header. Routing is the most important part and the most complex function of the IP protocol. When a TCP/IP system has to transmit the data to a system on another network, the data packets must travel through the routers which connect the network together.
IP Routing
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IP Fragmentation
Routers can connect networks which use different media types and different data-link layer protocols, but in order to forward data packets from one network to another, routers must often repackage the datagrams into different data-link layer frames. In some cases, this is simply a matter of stripping off the old frame and adding a new one, but at other times the data-link layer protocols are different enough to require more extensive repackaging.
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IP Options
IP options are additional header fields which enable datagrams to carry information and also accumulate information as the data travels through the network to their destinations. Some of the IP standards are mentioned as follows:
Loose Source Route Strict Source Route Record Route Timestamp
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Topic 4 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Internet Control Message Protocol is a part of TCP/IP suite and
internetwork layer protocols which uses the IP datagram delivery facility to send messages. The ICMP provides a mechanism for error reporting and the exchange of important information between IP devices. ICMP sends messages that perform the following control, error reporting, and informational functions which are divided into errors and queries for the TCP/IP protocol suite. ICMP message format
The structure of an ICMP message format generally has a common part and a unique part. The common part consists of three fields that have the same size and same meaning in all ICMP messages, although the values in the fields are not the same for each ICMP message type. The unique part contains a field that is specific to each type of message.
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Functions of the ICMP message format are as follows:
Type (1 byte)
This filed contains a code which specifies the basic function of the message.
Code (1 byte)
This field contains a code that really indicates the specific function of the message.
Checksum (2 bytes)
This field contains a checksum computed on the whole ICMP message; it is used for error detection.
Data (variable)
This field may contain information related to the specific function of the message.
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ICMP error message types The primary function of ICMP is the reporting errors of various types. ICMP
functions as a monitor of interest layer communications, enabling intermediate or end systems to return error messages to the sender. An ICMP error message always contains the IP header of the IP datagram that failed and the first eight bytes of the IP data field. This allows the ICMP to associate the error with a particular protocol from the Protocol field in the IP header and a particular process from the port numbers in the TCP or UDP header which are present in the first four bytes of the IP data field. The following are the various types of error messages.

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Destination Unreachable Messages Source Quench Messages Redirect Messages Time Exceeded Messages ICMP Query Message Types Echo Request and Echo Reply Messages Router Solicitation and Router Advertisement Messages
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ICMP Encapsulation
ICMP includes some messages for passing information between hosts, particularly between the routers. The ICMP messages are carried in the payload area of an IP datagram. This is illustrated in the following figure:
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Lesson 2 Standardized Protocols

Introduction
In networking, a protocol is the specification or the set of rules for a particular type of communication. Different protocols describe various aspects of a single communication between the computers. Some of the standardized protocols take a form of independent protocols which runs on every TCP/IP computer and enables IP to discover the hardware address of a computer using a particular IP address.
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Lesson 2 Standardized Protocols

Standardized Protocols
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Topic 1 Standardized Protocols

A protocol is the special set of rules which is applicable in a
telecommunication connection when they communicate. Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection. There are protocols for the data interchange at the hardware device level and protocols for data interchange at the application program level. Some of the protocols at each layer provide remote control capabilities, transmission of mails and other applications. Some of the standardized protocols are discussed below.
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TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) functions at the Transport Layer of the OSI model. It provides reliable data delivery which is ensured by sequencing and checksums. Without these measures, data would be transmitted with the sender having no idea if the destination node is offline or whether any data has been lost or become corrupted during the transmission. TCP also has the facility of flow control which ensures that a node does not get flooded with data. TCP is a connection- oriented sub protocol which means that a connection should be in place between the sender and destination node before this protocol can even begin to transmit data.
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Format of the TCP Segment
The TCP segment, by the process of encapsulation, becomes the IP datagrams data at the Network Layer during the process of transmission of data. The following figure shows the format of the TCP segment.
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UDP
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) operates at the Transport Layer, just like the TCP. The similarity with TCP ends there as UDP is a connectionless service unlike TCP. It offers no guarantee that data packets will be received in the correct sequence or whether it would reach at all. The advantage that UDP has over a more sophisticated TCP is its efficiency mainly because it is much simpler.
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The UDP header has just four fields in comparison to the 10 fields
in TCPs header. The four fields are:

Source Port Destination Port Length Checksum (optional)
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File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol is the protocol whereby files can be exchanged over a network in a simple, yet secure way. FTP is mostly used to download files from the Internet. It became the popular medium amongst music enthusiasts who wanted to download mp3s from websites like Napster. FTP is widely used by amateurs and professionals because of its ability to transfer files back and forth. In reality, when you download a file from the Internet via the FTP, you are actually transferring the file from another computer to your computer over the Internet. You will have no idea from which computer you are getting the file but you might know its URL or Internet address. The FTP address is similar to the HTTP or website address with the exception of its prefix being ftp:// instead of http://. You will need a UserID and Password to access an FTP site.
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Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP is a relatively simple, text- based protocol used to transfer e-mail efficiently and reliably. Mail servers use SMTP as the protocol to send email messages to each other or to communicate amongst themselves. In SMTP, one or more recipients of the message are specified or verified of their existence, after which the message text is sent to the recipients mailbox. The recipient may use email clients like POP3 and IMAP to access the emails in his mailbox. This is the reason why it is necessary to specify both the POP or IMAP server and SMTP server when configuring the email application. SMTP uses TCP port 25 for communication. This protocol was introduced as entirely ASCII-text based and therefore, it could not deal with binary files. Therefore, standards like MIME were developed to encode binary files for transfer through SMTP.
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Basics of SMTP The message sender in the SMTP establishes a two-way transmission channel to the message receiver. SMTP commands are sent from the sender to the receiver whereas SMTP replies are sent from the receiver to the sender in response to the commands. If there is no direct connection between the sender and the destination, one or more relay SMTP servers are used in between for the message to reach the destination. On establishing the transmission channel,
The sender sends a MAIL command to indicate the sender of the mail The receiver responds with an OK if it can accept mail The sender then sends a RCPT command to identify the recipient of the mail The receiver responds with an OK, if it can accept mail for that recipient. If not, it responds with a reply that rejects that recipient.
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Trivial file Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) operates at the TCP/IP Application layer. Just like FTP, TFTP enables the transfer of files between computers, but in a much simpler way. But TFTP depends on UDP at the Transport Layer unlike FTP. This means that TFTP is connectionless and will therefore not ensure the reliable delivery of data. Another difference when comparing FTP and TFTP is that TFTP does not need users to logon using an ID and password for access to any directory or to transfer files.
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Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) is the set of rules for transferring files like text, graphic images, sound, video, and other multimedia files on the World Wide Web. HTTP is an application protocol that runs on top of the TCP/IP suite of protocols. When the Web user opens their Web browser; the user is indirectly making use of HTTP. It is called a stateless protocol because each command is executed independently, without any knowledge of the commands. The HTTP messages contain a variety of fields containing information about the communicating systems.
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Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Secure Socket Layer
(HTTPS)
Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Secure Socket Layer (HTTPS or HTTP over SSL) is a version of HTTP developed by Netscape to incorporate encryption into Web browsing. HTTPS communicates over port 443 instead of port 80. SSL, the encryption protocol, provides for a 40-bit encryption key using an RC4 encryption algorithm by default. HTTPS is capable of authenticating users. HTTPS is used for the exchange of private information. For example, a Web site might have a Members only section that provides encrypted proprietary information to people who are authenticated.
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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) operates at the Network Layer and is used to obtain the MAC (hardware) address of a host/node and then form a database that maps the MAC address to the corresponding IP address of the host. The procedure to know the MAC address of a node on the network is the following:
The enquiring node, using ARP, issues a broadcast message to the network asking whether the computer with the IP address 100.0.0.2 could send him its MAC address. The node that has this IP address will, in turn, broadcast a reply with its MAC address.
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Computers save the MAC-to-IP mappings that have been recognized onto their hard disks in a database known as the ARP table or ARP cache. This makes ARP more efficient as the next time the computer needs the MAC address for a device, it can find it in the ARP table and not broadcast a request again. A sample ARP table is shown in the following figure:
The ARP table can have two types of entries: Dynamic: The dynamic ARP entries are entered when the client makes an ARP request but cannot be satisfied by the entries already present in the ARP table. Static: Static ARP entries are the entries that have been entered manually using the ARP utility.
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Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) performs the reverse steps of ARP. RARP uses the hardware address to determine the devices IP address. The client can send a broadcast message with its own MAC address and receive its IP address in reply. There is an RARP server which has a table of MAC addresses and their corresponding IP addresses. When this RARP server receives the clients request, it searches its table for the clients MAC address and its IP address. This information is then sent to the client. RARP was developed originally for diskless workstations to obtain their IP addresses from a server. These workstations have only a small amount of ROM (read only memory) to connect to the network. They do not have any hard disk memory.
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Telnet

Telnet is a command line client/server program which provides remote control capabilities for computers on a network. The name Telnet is derived from the term telephone network because it emulates a single terminal attached to another computer. In this client-server protocol, clients connect to port 23 on the host. Telnet is based on TCP and it can be used to have an interactive TCP connection of the protocol. You can control a remote host over LANs and WANs using Telnet. Once a TCP connection is established using Telnet between two machines, a users keystrokes on his own machine will be as if the user is typing them on the remotely connected machine itself. Telnet is mostly used to connect two systems that are dissimilar, for example, PCs and UNIX machines.
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To start up the Windows Telnet client, click Start, go to All Programs> Accessories> and click Command Prompt. The MS-DOS window comes up and at the prompt, type telnet and click Enter. The cursor changes to Microsoft Telnet>
On typing help /? at the prompt, you will get a list of supported commands in a telnet session.
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To connect to a UNIX server, type open followed by the IP address of the UNIX server and press Enter. Type in the user name at the login prompt and after pressing Enter, the password prompt comes up. Enter the password and if it is right, a shell prompt appears. This implies that you have logged on to the UNIX server from a remote client using the Telnet utility. Now, you can type any command and see the results on the Telnet window just as if you were typing at the keyboard attached to the UNIX server directly. To end the Telnet session, type exit and press Enter.
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Secure Shell (SSH)
Secure Shell (SSH) is a protocol used for creating a secure connection between two systems. In this protocol, the client machine initiates a connection with a server machine.
SSH Protocol consists of three major components:

The Transport Layer Protocol provides server authentication, confidentiality and integrity. It may optionally also provide compression. The User Authentication Protocol authenticates the client-side user to the server. It runs over the transport layer protocol. The Connection Protocol multiplexes the encrypted tunnel into several logical channels. It runs over the user authentication protocol.
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Advantages of using SSH protocol

When the connection is established, the client verifies whether it is connecting to the same server during subsequent sessions. The client transmits its authentication information to the server, such as a username and password, in an encrypted format. The entire data sent and received during the connection is transferred using strong, 128-bit encryption, making it extremely difficult to decrypt and read. The client has the ability to use X11 applications launched from the shell prompt. This technique is called X11 forwarding which provides a secure means to use graphical applications over a network.
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Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to provide information about membership of multicast groups on a network. Multicasting allows well-organized distribution of information to many hosts without requiring the inefficient alternatives such as multiple host-to-host transmissions, and broadcasting. Multicasting also allows clients to locate servers without broadcasting by requesting membership of the multicast group that the server maintains.
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Line Printer Requester (LPR)
Line Printer Requester (LPR) is a popular protocol used to send print jobs through the network. In order to send the jobs to print, software has to be installed using the LPR protocol. The print servers are configured to receive the print jobs by default, as it is a popular method of network printing. By installing LPR Client software, you can print to any LPR capable printer anywhere on the Internet, by knowing the printers hostname. The system will have to wait until the printer is free before it accepts the job.
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The Network News Transport Protocol (NNTP) NNTP is an Internet Application Layer protocol which is used to transfer articles between servers as well as to read and post articles (more specifically, USENET articles).
The USENET is a distributed world-wide bulletin board system that has innumerable newsgroups and forums. Newsgroups are formed to discuss topics related to politics, sports, entertainment etc. A newsgroup can be compared to e-mail because both convey messages but newsgroups convey messages to a bigger group of users and not from one user to another. NNTP supports the process of reading newsgroup messages, posting new messages, and transferring news files between news servers.
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NTP
Network Time Protocol is the protocol meant to synchronize the clocks of computer systems over data networks. This protocol operates at the Application Layer and it uses UDP port 123 for its transport layer services. This protocol is one of the oldest Internet protocols still in use and though its a simple protocol, it is very important. Since NTP depends on UDP, it takes advantage of UDPs quick and connectionless nature at the Transport Layer. NTP is time sensitive and since TCP requires error checking, NTP cannot afford to wait that long. Time synchronization is very crucial for time stamped security methods and also for maintaining accuracy and consistency amongst multiple storage systems. Time is also crucial when it comes to determining the most efficient path for data to travel over a network.
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Domain Name System (DNS) Refers to the hierarchical way of translating domain names to IP addresses. It attaches easy-to-remember domain names like www.google.co.in to its hard-to-remember IP addresses like 64.233.189.104. There is an organized system of computers and databases that allow the resolution of domain names to IP addresses possible. The DNS service relies on thirteen computers, also known as root servers which act as the top-level authority. There are mainly three components in the DNS service:
Resolvers Name Servers Name Space

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A list of commonly used TCP/IP port
numbers are:
Port Number 7 20 21 22 23 25 53
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Process Name ECHO FTP-DATA FTP SSH TELNET SMTP DNS
Protocol Used TCP and UDP TCP TCP TCP TCP TCP TCP and UDP
Description Echo File Transfer - Data File Transfer Control Secure Shell Telnet Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Domain Name System
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69 80 110 119 143 443 TFTP HTTP POP3 NNTP IMAP HTTPS UDP TCP and UDP TCP TCP TCP TCP Trivial File Transfer Protocol World Wide Web HTTP Post Office Protocol 3 Network News Transport Protocol Internet Message Access Protocol Secure Implementation of HTTP
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Lesson 3 Network Protocols

Introduction
The protocols operating at the network layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model are responsible for the endto-end transmission of data across an internetwork. The IPX/SPX and NetBEUI is concerned with transmitting packets to other systems on the local area network and are commonly used network protocols. In 1980s, Apple Computer developed a protocol suite, AppleTalk that was developed in conjunction with the Macintosh computer.
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Lesson 3 Network Protocols

IPX/SPX
NetBEUI Apple Talk Network Service and Protocols
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Topic 1 IPX/SPX
Internet Protocol Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange
When Novell created NetWare, the company designed its own suite of protocols, which is generally referred as the network layer protocol called the Internetwork Packet Exchange or IPX. Basically, IPX and the other protocols in the IPX suite are designed for the use on LANs. IPX does not have its own self-contained addressing system like IP, but it perform some of the same functions as IP such as routing traffic between different types of networks and identifying the protocol which generated the data it is carrying.
The IPX header

IPX creates datagrams by adding a header to the data it receives from the transport layer protocols. The IPX header is longer than that of IP. IPX header is 30bytes and the IP header has 20 bytes. The IPX header format is as shown in the following figure.
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Topic 1 IPX/SPX
IPX Header Format
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Topic 1 IPX/SPX
IPX Addressing
IPX does not have its own addressing system instead it uses the same hardware addresses which data-link layer protocols use to identify the computers on the network. This works with the Netware because the operating system is intended for use with LAN-based computers. The Destination Node Address and the Source Node Address fields are each 6 bytes long to hold the hardware addresses code into the network interface adapters installed in the computers. The main difference between the hardware address and an IP address is that IP addresses identify both a network and a host on that network, but hardware addresses identify only a network interface adapter. In order for a Netware network to forward the data packets, it must be aware of the destination system, and this requires some means to identify particular networks. In addition to get the data to the right computer, IPX must deliver the data to the correct process on that computer. To perform this process, it includes 2-byte codes in the Destination Socket and Source Socket fields to identify the function of the datagram.
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Topic 1 IPX/SPX
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX)
Sequenced Packet Exchange is the transport layer protocol for handling packet sequencing in a Novell NetWare network. It prepares the sequence of packets that a message is divided and manages the reassembly of received packets. SPX manages the forwarding of packets in the network and works directly with the Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX). It provides most of the services as TCP, including packet acknowledgement and flow control. However, SPX protocol is rarely used compared to other protocols. The Netware server use SPX for communication between print queues, print servers, and printers and for specialized applications which require its services.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 1 IPX/SPX
SPX messages are carried within IPX datagrams using the message
format as shown in the following figure.
Connection Protocol (1 byte)

This field contains a code which identifies the message as performing a certain control function, such as End of Message or Acknowledgement Required.
Datastream Type (1 byte)

This field identifies the type of information found in the Data field or contains a code used during the connection termination sequence.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 1 IPX/SPX
Source Connection ID (2 bytes)

This field contains the number used by the transmitting system to identify the current connection.
Destination Connection ID (2 bytes)

This field contains the number used by the receiving system to identify the current connection.
Sequence Number (2 bytes)

This field specifies the location of the message in sequence.
Acknowledgement Number (2 bytes)

This field contains the Sequence Number value which the system expects in the next packet it receives, hence acknowledging the successful receipt of all the previous packets.
Allocation Number (2 bytes)

This field specifies the number of packet receive buffers that are available on the transmitting system.
Data (variable)
This field contains the information generated by an application layer protocol.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 2 NetBEUI
NetBEUI
The TCP/IP is the default protocol for the Microsoft Windows operating systems, but the early versions of Windows NT and Windows for Workgroups relied on another protocol called the NetBIOS Extended User Interface or NetBEUI. The NetBEUI is different from IP and IPX. The main difference is that the NetBEUI does not route packets between networks. This means that the protocol is not suitable for the use on large internetworks. The NetBEUI excels in the small LANs environment. For a small standalone network, NetBEUI provides an excellent performance, is self-adjusting, and is self-configuring. It does not require any configuration parameters as TCP/IP. NetBEUI however requires TCP/IP to support Internet communications.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 2 NetBEUI
NetBIOS Naming
The Network Basic Input/Output System (NetBIOS) is a basic programming interface which applications use to communicate with the networking hardware in the computer and through that with the network. NetBIOS includes its own name space which NetBEUI uses to identify computers on the network, just as IP uses its own IP addresses and IPX uses hardware addresses. At the time of Windows installation the name used to assign in reality is a NetBIOS name, which must be unique on the network.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 2 NetBEUI

NetBIOS name is 16 characters long. In windows, the sixteenth character is reserved for a code which identifies the type of resource using the name. Different codes can identify the NetBIOS names as representing computers, domain controllers, users, groups and other resources. NetBEUI completely deals with computer identifier, which means that all the computers must be accessible from one network.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 2 NetBEUI
NetBEUI Frame The NetBEUI Frame (NBF) protocol is a multipurpose protocol
which Windows use for a variety of purposes. It includes the registration and resolution of NetBIOS names, the establishment of sessions between computers on the network and the transport of file and print data using Windows Server Message Blocks (SMB) protocol. All these functions use a single frame format as shown below.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 2 NetBEUI

Length (2 bytes)
This field specifies the length of the NBF header in bytes.
Delimiter (2 bytes)
This field signals the receiving system that the message should be delivered to the NetBIOS interface.
Command (1 byte)
This field identifies the function of the NBF message.
Data1 (1 byte)
This field is used to transmit the optional data specific to the message type specified by the Command field.
Data2 (2 bytes)
This field is used to transmit the optional data specific to the message type specified by the Command field.
Transmit Correlator (2 bytes)

This field contains a value that the receiving system will duplicate in the same field in its reply messages, enabling the sending system to associate the requests and replies.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 2 NetBEUI
Response Correlator (2 bytes)

This field contains the value that the sending system expects to receive in the Transmit Correlator field of the reply to this message.
Destination Name (16 bytes)

This field contains the NetBIOS name of the system that receives the packet.
Source Name (16 bytes)

This field contains the NetBIOS name of the system sending the packet.
Destination Number (1 byte)

This field contains the number assigned to the session by the destination system.
Source Number (1 byte)

This field contains the number assigned to the session by the source system.
Optional (variable)
This field contains the actual data payload of the packet.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 3 Apple Talk
AppleTalk is a protocol suite developed by Apple Computer in the early 1980s. It was developed in conjunction with the Macintosh computer. The main purpose of AppleTalk was to allow multiple users to share resources, such as files and printers. The two versions of AppleTalk are:
AppleTalk Phase 1 AppleTalk Phase 2
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 3 Apple Talk
AppleTalk Phase 1
AppleTalk Phase 1 is the first AppleTalk specification, was developed in the early 1980s. It is mainly used in the local workgroups. Therefore, Phase 1 has two key limitations.
Its network segments can contain no more than 135 hosts and 135 servers. It can support only nonextended networks.
AppleTalk Phase 2
AppleTalk Phase 2 is the second enhanced AppleTalk implementation, designed for use in larger internetworks. The Phase 2 addresses the key limitations of AppleTalk Phase 1 and features a number of improvements over Phase 1. In particular, Phase 2 allows any combination of 253 hosts or servers on a single AppleTalk network segment and supports both nonextended and extended networks.
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Module 4 Protocols
Topic 4 Network services and Protocols

The network protocols are the applications which run on their own
servers. Some of the core protocols are discussed below Domain Name Service (DNS)

Domain Name Service (DNS) is a system which stores information associated with domain names in a distributed database on network. The DNS protocol is mainly used to request resource records from name servers. Since DNS provides a world wide redirection service, it is considered as an essential component of present day usage of Internet.
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Module 4 Protocols
Network Address Translation (NAT)
Network Address Translation (NAT) is a usually used for IP translation and mapping technology. NAT is a common technology for Internet connection sharing. The different kinds of NAT are as follows:
Static NAT Dynamic NAT Overloading or Post Address Translation Overlapping
NAT is also sometimes utilized in server load balancing applications on corporate networks. NAT provides the private IP addresses on a home network to one IP address provided by an Internet Service Provider (ISP). NAT offers technical support for fixed or dynamic mappings of one or more internal and external IP addresses.
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Module 4 Protocols

Internet Connection Sharing (ICS)
Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) is the name provided by Microsoft to a feature in its recent versions of Windows operating system. The main feature of ICS is to share only one Internet connection on one computer among other computers on the same local area network. It uses Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol and Network address translation. The XP version of Windows operating system has the feature of Internet Connection Sharing or ICS, which permits other computer for sharing their Internet connection. Using one Windows XP computer with ICS installed in it and connected to the Internet, it is possible for enabling computers in the same network to make the ICS to dial up and get connected to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). ICS operates by offering Network Address Translation from the outer network to the internal network and the other way round.
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Module 4 Protocols

It supervises for doing this translation by having a map of the open ports and IP addresses related with connections, which are done through ICS. The above process is called as port mapping. When a computer within the network requests through ICS, the outbound packet is interpreted. The source field details having the IP address and port number is interchanged with the IP address of the NAT device and a new source port number. The NAT device should be the NIC with ICS enabled. The initial destination and source IP addresses and ports as well as the details the NAT device put in the frame are saved in a table. When the destination host obtains the packet, it responds to the source IP address and port of the NAT device. As the response reaches a specific port, NAT can check with its table to know to what computer it should pass the response.
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Module 4 Protocols

One more enhancement of ICS in Windows XP is the support for an expertise called NAT Traversal that is part of the Universal Plug and Play requirement. NAT Traversal will permit UPnP-capable software for find out they are utilizing NAT to interact with applications on the Internet. It also permits them for inserting information in the payload, which will let the application on the Internet to reply to the NAT device sooner than a private IP address. The use of NAT Traversal will let a broader range of applications to operate via NAT.
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Windows Internet Name Service (WINS)
Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) is a name resolution service provided with Windows NT and Windows 2000 Server to map NetBIOS computer names of the form \\<name> to corresponding IP addresses. The two main components of WINS are the WINS server and the WINS client. WINS Server
The WINS Sever handles name registration or release requests from WINS clients, and registers or releases their names and IP addresses. It also responds to name queries from WINS clients by returning the IP address of the name being queried It replicates the WINS database with other WINS servers.
WINS Client
The client registers or releases its name with the WINS server when it joins or leaves the network. Queries the WINS server for remote name resolution.
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Advantages of WINS
WINS name resolution reduces NetBIOS name query broadcast traffic because clients can query a WINS server directly instead of broadcasting queries. WINS enables the Computer Browser service to collect and distribute browse lists across IP routers The WINS dynamic name-to-address database supports NetBIOS name registration and resolution in environments where DHCP-enabled clients are configured for dynamic TCP/IP address allocation The WINS database also supports centralized management and replicates name-to-address mappings to other WINS servers WINS and DNS can be used in the same environment to provide combined name searches in both namespaces.
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Module 4 Protocols

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) was developed to manage and monitor the network devices. SNMP uses a Management Information Base (MIB) to define the objects that manage the network devices. When an administrator uses an SNMP application to define alerts for a type of equipment on the network, the SNMP references its MIB to determine the various events that can occur with that type of object. Many of the SNMP based applications are graphical with these actions taking place behind the scenes. They make it easy for an administrator to simply browse the network, point and click on the objects, and quickly assign the configurable alerts. For new network equipment, a manufacturer will create an MIB specifically for the object so that it can be incorporated in existing SNMP applications.
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Network File System (NFS)

Network File System (NFS) was originally developed by Sun Microsystems as a way to create a file system on diskless clients. NFS provides remote access to shared file systems across networks. NFS was also designed to be a machine, operating system, network architecture, and transport protocol independent. The primary functions of NFS are to export or mount directories to other machines, either on or off a local network. These directories can then be accessed as though they were local. NFS uses client/server architecture and consists of a client program, a server program, and a protocol used to communicate between the two. The server program makes file systems available for access by other machines via a process called exporting. File systems that are available for access across the network are often referred to as shared file systems.
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Module 4 Protocols

Zero Configuration (Zeroconf)
Zeroconf is a protocol used for discovering services available on the local network which is also known as Automatic Private IP Addressing or APIPA. It is a technique which automatically creates a usable IP network without configuration. This allows multiple users to connect computers, networked printers, and other applications.
Service Message Block Protocol (SMB)
Service Message Block Protocol is a protocol used for sharing files, printers, serial ports, and communications abstractions such as named pipes and mail slots between computers. SMB is a client server, request-response protocol.
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Module 4 Protocols
The main function of SMB is that, the client makes requests and the server sends back the responses. When the client requests the opportunistic locks (oplocks) and the server subsequently breaks an already granted oplock because another client has requested a file open with a mode that is incompatible with the granted oplock. In this case, the server sends an unsolicited message to the client signaling the oplock break.
Servers make file systems and other resources such as printers available to clients on the network. Clients connect to servers using TCP/IP, NetBEUI or IPX/SPX. When the connection is established a connection, clients can then send commands (SMBs) to the server that allow them to access shares, open files, read and write files. However, in the case of SMB, these things are done over the network.
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Module 4 Protocols

AppleTalk Filing Protocol (AFP)
The AppleTalk Filing Protocol (AFP) is the file sharing protocol of the AppleTalk architecture. It provides a native mode interface to Apple file system resources. Apple files are comprised of two data structures called forks. An Apple file may be accessed by its data fork or its resource fork. The data fork holds raw file data while the resource fork contains information used by the operating system to manage icons and drivers.
Line Printer Daemon/Line Printer Remote Protocol (LPD/LPR)
The Line Printer Daemon protocol/Line Printer Remote protocol is a set of programs which provide printer spooling and network print server functionality for Unix-like systems.
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Module 4 Protocols
To use the LPD printers, the LPD software has to be installed and can reside in a computer that serves as the print server or within the printer and many network printers have built-in LPD support. It controls access to attached printers and to other hosts on the network. It enables users to submit the jobs to be printed. It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a queue for each printer. It handles the communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports. It can send jobs to the other host through the network It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities.
Features of LPD

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Module 4 Protocols
Summary

TCP/IP standards are published in documents called Requests for Comments (RFCs) by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). TCP/IP has four layer of networking model. They are:
Link Internet Transport Layer Application Layer
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a network layer protocol used to convert an Internet Protocol (IP) address into a physical address such as an Ethernet address. IP is used by all the protocols in the layers above and below it to deliver the data, which means all TCP/IP data, flows through IP when it is sent and received, regardless of its final destination.
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Module 4 Protocols
Summary
Telecommunications network protocols (Telnet) is a command line client/server program which provides remote control capabilities for computers on a network. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a network layer protocol used to convert an Internet Protocol (IP) address into a physical address such as an Ethernet address. Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) and Internet Message Access Protocol 4 (IMAP4) are the two application-layer protocols used for electronic messaging across the Internet. IMAP4 is also an e-mail protocol; works in the same way as POP3, but an email message is held on a server and then downloaded to an e-mail client application. File transfer protocol (FTP) is one of the most extensively used application protocols. HTTPS is used for the exchange of private information.
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Summary
IPX is a connectionless protocol which functions at the network layer of the OSI reference model and carries the data generated by the other protocols across the network. IPX and the other protocols in the IPX suite are designed mainly for the use on LANs. NetBEUI is the protocol suitable for the use in small LANs environment. The NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) is a basic programming interface used to communicate with the networking hardware in the computer, through the network. AppleTalk is a protocol suite developed by Apple Computer in the early 1980s. It was developed in conjunction with the Macintosh computer. The main purpose of Appletalk was to allow multiple users to share resources, such as files and printers. There are two versions of AppleTalk AppleTalk Phase1 and AppleTalk Phase2. Network Address Translation or NAT is a common technology for Internet connection sharing. It is also normally used for IP translation and mapping technology. Line Printer Daemon protocol is a set of programs which provide printer spooling and network print server functionality for Unix-like systems.
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Understanding Network Basics: Protocols

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Module 4 Protocols

Understanding Network Basics

Understanding Network Basics

Lessons covered in this module

Understanding Network Basics

Lesson 1 TCP/IP Suits

Understanding Network Basics

Lesson 1 TCP/IP Suits

Topics covered in this lesson are

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 1 TCP/IP Protocols

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP/IP) refers to the collection

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 1 TCP/IP Protocols

The Benefits of Using TCP/IP

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Link Internet Transport Layer Application Layer

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 2 TCP/IP Layers

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 3 Internet Protocols (IP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 4 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Understanding Network Basics

Topic 4 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Functions of the ICMP message format are as follows: