ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION
EE204
LECTURER
ENG. G. KAPUNGU
INTRODUCTION
Formal definition:
Measurement (also called metrology) is the
science of determining values of physical
variables.
Instrumentation is the technology of
measurement.
Physical Variables
Temperature
Pressure
Light intensity
Displacement
Speed
Level
Flow-rate etc
Typical Applications of Measurements
1. Monitoring of a process or operation to
indicate its state or condition.
Examples:
i. Monitoring environmental conditions
ii. Water and electricity meters monitor
quantity used.
iii. Patient monitoring in hospitals (blood
pressure, heart beat, temperature) etc.
Applications (contd)
iv. In vehicles various instruments are
incorporated to indicate speed, fuel left in
tank, engine temperature etc.
2. Process control:
automatic control systems incorporate
measuring instruments at various stages of
the process.
3. Data recording this is the recording of data
for storage and later use.

Contd
examples of recording media are magnetic
tape, paper chart cd etc.
Block diagram of an instrumentation system
measurement target
object object
Data
acquisition
Data
processing
Data
distribution
Instrumentation system
1. Data acquisition
this is acquiring information about the
measurement object using suitable sensors
and conversion into electrical data
(transduction).
more than one variable can be measured or
one variable can be measured at different
points simultaneously.
Contd
2. Data processing
This is manipulation of measurement data in
order to achieve some desired result.
3. Data distribution
This is the supplying of data to the target
object(s)
This could be a monitor, controller or a
recorder.

Standards
1. International standards:
Defined by international agreements
2. Primary standards:
Maintained at institutions around the world
Main function is checking accuracy of
secondary standards

Contd
3. Secondary standards
Employed in industry as references for
calibration and for verifying working
standards.
4. Working standards
Used as measurement references on a day
to day basis in all electronics labs.
Measurement errors
Measurement can thus be redefined as the
process of comparing an unknown quantity with
an expected (standard ) quantity
Usually, measurement gives a value that is not
the expected value.
The difference is measurement error.
Error is the measure of the degree that the
measured value conforms to the expected value.


Contd
That is where and are the
expected and the measured values
respectively.
Can be
Fractional error =

And % error is fractional error is fractional
error x100%
n n
X Y E =
n
Y
n
X
n
n n
Y
X Y
Contd
Absolute fractional error = and is
always positive
n
n n
Y
X Y
Types of errors (3 types)
1. Gross errors or Human errors
these result from carelessness e.g.
misreading an instrument or incorrectly
recording a reading.
2. Systematic errors -
Instrumental errors due to friction and zero
positioning.
Contd
Environmental errors due to ambient
conditions i.e.
o Temperature
o Humidity
o Pressure
o Presence of electric and magnetic fields
Contd
3. Random errors
These are unpredictable errors and can occur
any time and they require statistical analysis.
Statistical analysis of random errors:
i. Average (arithmetic mean) or (measure of
central tendency) is given by:

=
=
n
i
i
n x x
1
/
Contd
ii. Deviation is the departure of a given reading
from the arithmetic mean i.e.
iii. Average deviation

iv. Standard deviation

v. Variance,


x x d
i i
=

=
=
n
i
i
d D
1

=
n
i
n
d
1
2
1
o
2
o = V
Measurement error combinations
Used when quantities are calculated from
measurements made from two (or more)
instruments.
it is assumed that the errors combine in a
worst possible way.
i. Sum of quantities
which give

) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
V V V V V A + A =
) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
V V V V V A + A + =
Contd
ii. Difference of quantities
the error of the difference of two
measurements are again additive:

and
) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
V V V V V A A =
) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
V V V V V A + A =
Contd
iii. Product of two quantities
P = VI
=
=
is vary small and can be neglected

Can be shown that %error in P=%error in V +
%error in I.
) )( ( I I V V A + A +
I V V I I V VI A A + A A
E IA A
) ( V I I V VI P A + A ~
Contd
IV. Quotient of quantities:
% error in E/I = (%error in E) + (%error in I)
v. Quantity raised to a power:
%error in = B(%error in A)
B
A
Contd
Some more definitions :
i. Accuracy the degree of exactness of a
measurement compared with the expected
value.
ii. Relative accuracy, A = 1 (absolute error)
iii. % accuracy = A x 100%
iv. Precision is the consistency or repeatability
of a measurement.

Contd
v. If i readings are taken and is the average of
the readings, and is the reading, we
define precision as:




vi. Instrument is a device used to indicate the present
value of a variable. (it can be analogue or digital)


i
X
i
X
th
i
i
i i
X
X X
P

=1
Contd
vii. Measurement is the process of determining
the amount, quantity, degree or capacity of a
variable by comparison with the accepted
standard of the system employed.
viii.Expected value is the most probable value
that calculations indicate one should get.


Characteristics (response) of
instruments
These are divided into two types depending
on:
i. Type of input to the instrument
ii. The point in time the instrument is observed
iii. The type of output
Definition: - Plot of an instruments output
against time is a response curve.
Contd
a) Static response:
This describes the behavior of the instrument
when it attains steady state
( i.e. has been allowed enough time to settle
down to a steady reading)
Can also be response to a steady input.
Contd
b) Dynamic response:
This relates instrument behavior to a varying
input
Or instrument behavior after a sudden
change in input value e.g. application of a
step input or an impulse input).
Type of inputs
i. Ramp input
Signal amplitude changes linearly with time
time
amplitude
ramp
f(t) = At; t > 0
= 0; t < 0

Inputs contd
ii. Step/steady input


A
amplitude
time
f(t) = Au(t)
u(t) = 1; t > 0
= 0; t < 0
Contd
iii. Impulse -
amplitude
time
0 ; 0 ) ( = = t t o
Contd
iv. Step/ramp -
time
amplitude
f (t) = At; t > 0
= A ;t = 0
Contd
v. The sinusoid

A

f(t) = Asint
Contd
vi. Random _
f(t) = ?
Static(steady state) characteristics
Listed on instrument data sheets
Apply only when instrument is used under
standard calibration conditions.
a) Accuracy and precision
b) Range or span
This is the maximum and minimum values
that an instrument is designed to measure.
Contd
c) Bias
This is a constant error that exists over the
full range of measurement.
i.e. a reading always appears before an input
is applied.
Can be removed by calibration.
Contd
d) Linearity
It is desirable that the instrument reading be
linearly related to the quantity being
measured.
Non linearity is the maximum deviation of
any reading from the straight line expressed
as a % of full scale.
Contd
e) Sensitivity
Change of in instrument output per unit
change in input.
i.e. sensitivity = scale deflection / value of
measurand causing the deflection.
(slope of output / input characteristic or
transfer function)
Contd
f) Sensitivity to disturbance
Instrument must be minimally sensitive to all
other conditions except the measurand.
ambient conditions are a source of this
disturbance and the effects are in three
forms:
i. Zero drift zero reading is modified by
ambient conditions.
Contd
E.g. in a voltmeter, zero drift coefficient
related to temperature changes is measured
in volts per degree.
An instrument can have several zero drift
coefficient related to other environmental
parameters.
Recalibration removes zero drift.

Contd
g) Sensitivity drift
This defines the amount by which is modified
by changes in ambient conditions.
h) Zone drift
Occurs only over a certain zone.
Illustration of drift
o/p






i/P
Nominal response
Zero drift
Sensitivity drift
both
Static characteristics (contd)
i) Hysteresis -
This is the non-coincidence of the loading
and the unloading calibration curves.
Associated with capability of memory since
reduction of input to zero results in a
remanance of the output quantity
This property is made use of in magnetic
recording.
Contd
j) Dead space
This is the range of input values where there
is no change in output
Also occurs in instruments which do not
exhibit hysteresis.
k) Threshold
The minimum value reached by the input
before instrument gives an output reading.
illustration







l) Resolution smallest change in input that
produces an observable change in instrument
o/p
Input variable
threshold
Dead
band
Dynamic response
Linear time invariant systems which are
asymptotically stable:
i. Linear obeys the principle of superposition
and the principle of frequency preservation.
ii. Time invariant system properties do not
vary with time.
iii. Asymptotically stable system stabilizes with
time.

Contd
For such a system, there exists an empirical
relationship between input and output which
is:

i
i
m
i
m
m
m
i
m
m
o
o
n
o
n
n
n
o
n
n
q b
dt
dq
b
dt
q d
b
dt
q d
b
q a
dt
dq
a
dt
q d
a
dt
q d
a
0 1
1
1
1
0 1
1
1
1
.......
.......
+ + + +
= + + + +

Contd
The right hand side assumes use of known
inputs.
For a step input qi = x0 for t > 0
= xr for ramp input
= xssint
The qs are functions of time and the as and
bs are constants.
Contd
In practical instruments, certain assumptions
can be made and certain restrictions can be
imposed.
1
st
assume only step input. The 1
st
and higher
order terms on the right hand side reduce to
zero.
i.e.:
i o o
o
n
o
n
n
q b q a
dt
dq
a
dt
q d
a
0 1
......... = + + +
Zero order instrument
2
nd
assumption
Then


The expression describes a zero order
instrument and k is the static sensitivity.
There is no dynamic error and output strictly
follows input.
arezeros a a
n 1
,........,
i i
o
o
o
kq q
a
b
q = =
Contd
A linear displacement potentiometer is a
typical example of a zero order instrument.
First order instrument
If all second and higher order terms are
assumed to be zero
and initial conditions are such that at t
= 0 (no bias)
Then:


Let D = d/dt
0 =
o
q
i o o o
o
q b q a
dt
dq
a = +
1
Contd
Then :
D
a
a
q
a
b
q
q b q a Dq a
i
o
o o o
0
1
0
0
0 0 1
1+
=
= +
Contd
Therefore:


Where:

The solution to the above equation is:
D
kq
q
i
o
t +
=
1
0
1
a
a
= t
t / t
i i o
e q q q

=
Contd
The first part on the right hand side is the
particular integral and the second the
complementary function
The c.f. reduces to zero as t becomes large
resulting in the output assuming the value of
the p.i.

illustration
An instrument satisfying the above conditions
is a first - order instrument.
Final reading
o/p
time
90%
63%
t
90% lag
Dynamic error
Contd
A typical first order instrument (or part of an
instrument system) is a thermocouple.
The time it takes the output to reach 63% of
final value is the time constant.
The instruments are associated with lag
quoted as % of response.
Figures used are usually the time required for
output to rise to 90%, 95% and 98%.
Dynamic characteristics of importance
These are fidelity and speed of response:
a) Fidelity -
Quality of indication by the instrument for a
time-varying input.
Degree of closeness with which the output
reproduces the time-varying input.
Difference results in dynamic error.
Contd
b) Speed of response
Rapidity with which the instrument response
to changes in input.
The delay is called lag.
Both dynamic error and lag must be known
for each input in order to make correct
estimation of data.
Second - order instrument
Assumptions:
i. all third order coefficients and above are
zero.
ii. Initial conditions are such that output is zero
at t = 0.
iii. The original equation becomes:
i o o
q b q a D a q D a
0 0 1
2
2
= + +
Contd
Let static sensitivity


Let un-damped natural frequency


And damping ratio
0
0
a
b
k =
2
0
a
a
= e
2
1
2a
a
= c
Contd
then:


Any instrument which obeys the above
equation is a second-order instrument.
Dynamic behavior depends on the value of
the damping ratio
1 / 2 /
2
+ +
=
e c e D D
k
q
q
i
o
Illustration for different value of
damping ratio
0 = c
System oscillates at the
un-damped natural frequency
o c
But small output overshoots
with oscillations that gradually die
down
707 . 0 = c
The system is said to be
critically damped and its
behavior resembles a1st order
instrument
Transducers (Sensors)
A transducer is a device that converts one
form of energy to another.
In electrical measurements, transducers
convert other forms of energy to electrical
Note:
Naturally existing phenomena are non-
electrical. E.g. temperature, pressure,
displacement etc.
Contd
The transducer must fulfill two major
functions:
i. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in
and frequency of some measurand.
ii. To provide an electrical output which when
processed and supplied to a readout device,
gives an accurate representation of the
original measurand.
Classification of transducers
These are classified as:
i. Genuine energy converters ( called active
transducers)
ii. Energy controllers (passive transducers)
Important considerations in transducer
selection:
i. Long term stability of input / output
relationships (transfer characteristic)

Contd
ii. Size, shape and weight of the device
iii. Response to rapid changes in measurand
iv. Electrical output impedance
v. Reliability, availability and cost.
vi. Response to interfering and modifying inputs
vii. Effects of ambient conditions(temperature,
humidity, vibration and supply frequency in
the case of ac powered devices.
Interfering and modifying inputs
Transducer
Interfering i/p,
I
i
Modifying i/p,
M
i
Desired i/p,
D
i
o/p due to
M I
i i &
o/p
o/p due to
M D
i i &
Contd
Desired input refers to the quantity the
transducer is specifically intended to respond
to.
Interfering input represents those quantities
the transducer is unintentionally sensitive to.
Modifying input represents the quantity
whose effect is to modify the desired and
interfering inputs.
Contd
Common sources of modifying inputs are
ambient conditions and battery voltage.
Finally, transducer behavior can be affected by
self heating, vibration and supply frequency.
Note:
A device that convert the modified electrical
signal into a non-electrical signal is an output
transducer e.g. a radio speaker.
Temperature transducers
These employ pure metal wire such as pure
platinum, copper, nickel, etc.
Provide definite resistance value at each
temperature.
Platinum is the preferred metal because:
i. It is stable under different environmental
conditions
ii. Resistance / temperature characteristic is
linear over a wide temperature range.
Resistance temperature detectors
It is least sensitive to contamination
RTDs:
The resistance of metals increases with
temperature according to:

Platinum RTDs are either thick film or wire
wound type.
The thick film type has a faster speed of
response.
)] ( 1 [
1 2 1 2
T T R R
T
+ = o
Contd
If the two are immersed in hot water whose
temperature is T at time t = 0, response curves
are shown below:
time
T
Thick
film
Wire wound
Contd
Note the superior response of the thick film
type.
This transducer is a first order type and is an
example of a passive transducer.
The thermistor (thermal resistor)
This device is made from either oxides of
nickel, manganese and cobalt
or sulfides of iron, aluminum or copper
or semiconducting materials
These are made into beads, discs or rods.
They are characterized by a negative
temperature coefficient of resistance.
and very high sensitivity.
Contd
Operating temperature -60C to 150C
The resistance / temperature characteristic is
given by:


Where is a material constant which ranges
from 3000K to 5000K.
The major advantages are:
)
1 1
(
0
0
T T
e R R

=
|
Contd
1. high sensitivity and
2. Small size.
3. Small mass (implying shorter time constant)
The small size makes them ideal for
measurement in confined places.
The major disadvantages are limited range (-
60C to 150C)
and non-linearity.
Contd
Linearizing networks are now available
When connected to microprocessors software
does the linearising.
They also find applications in temperature
control systems where linearity is not as
important as sensitivity.

Some applications of thermistors
a. Because of their negative temperature
coefficients, they are used to compensate for
effects of temperature on circuit components.
It is mounted on or near the circuit element so
that it experiences the same temperature as the
circuit element.
It can be arranged that the equivalent resistance
that results is constant over a wide temperature
range.
Contd
b. Measurement of thermal conductivity:
Two thermistors are placed in two cavities
They are connected in a bridge arrangement
so that with air in both cavities, bridge is
balanced.
Air in one cavity is replaced by, say, carbon
dioxide which has lower conductivity
The amount of bridge unbalance represents
amount of gas.


Contd
c. Measurement of gas flow-rate:
One thermistor is sealed in brass and other is
placed in a hollow pipe and the two are
placed in a bridge circuit.
With no gas flow, the bridge is balance.
When gas flows, the thermistor is cooled and
its temperature is reduced and resistance
increased.
Contd
The out of balance voltage is proportional to
the flow-rate.
The thermistor is a passive transducer and is a
first order device.
Typical flow-rates of the order of 0.001 cubic
cm per minute have been measured by this
method.
The thermocouple
The Seeback effect:
When two dissimilar metals are in contact, a
potential is developed which is proportional to
the temperature of the junction.
The voltage that is generated is:

Where s is the sensitivity of the material
combination.


) (
1 2
T T s V =
Contd
This effect results from the diffusion of
electrons across the interface between the
two metals.
The material giving the electrons become
more positive and the one receiving more
negative.
This is an active transducer which is of the first
order type.
Fabrication







V
Reference
junction
Metal 2
Metal 1
Sensing
junction
T A
T s V A =
Contd
Another configuration:







DVM
1
J
2
J
Ice
Cu
Cu
constantan
Ji
sT V =
Contd
The thermal contact (junction) can be made
by twisting, welding, soldering, pressing or
brazing.
A general two junction thermocouple:




Material 1
Material 2
Contd
An alternative expression for the transfer
characteristic is:


Where the Cs are thermoelectric constants.
These depend on the two materials used.

) ( ) (
2
2
1
2
2 2 1 1
T T C T T C V + =
Principles of thermocouple behavior
a) Must contain two dissimilar metals.
b) Output voltage depends only on the
difference between the two junction
temperatures
c) If a third metal is inserted into metal 1 or
metal 2, output voltage is not affected
provided the new junctions are at same
temperature.
materials
Thermocouples are made from:
i. Copper and iron
ii. Base metal alloys of alumel, chromel,
constantan, etc.
iii. The noble metals platinum and tungsten
iv. Noble metal alloys platinum/rhodium,
tungsten/rhenium

The thermopile
This consists of several thermocouples
connected together in series.
All the reference junctions are at the same
temperature and all the hot junctions are
exposed to the temperature being measured
The effect of connecting together n
thermocouples is to increase the sensitivity by
a factor, n.
illustration

Reference junction
V
Force transducer
The strain gauge:
This is a resistive input transducer whose
resistance change is related to changes in
length.
Increase in length from L to L +
Results in increase in resistance from R to R +
Sensitivity of the gauge (or gauge factor) is
given by:
L A
R A
Contd
o
R R
L L
R R
G
/
/
/ A
=
A
A
=
Where: R = resistance
L = length
= mechanical strain

o
Hookes Law: S =
E o
Where: E = Youngs modulus
S = mechanical stress
Contd
Common strain gauges are metal alloys of
copper and nickel with a gauge factor of
approximately 2.
Example:
A resistance strain gauge with a gauge factor
of 2 is fastened to a steel member and
subjected to a stress of . Calculate
the change in resistance of the strain gauge
element due to the applied stress.
1050 kg/
2
cm
Contd
Strain gauges are used in the measurement of
force, pressure, acceleration and dc bridges
are used as conditioners.
Main source of error is resistance change due
to temperature.
Bridge methods which make use of dummy
gauges compensate for these errors.
Force measurement (Contd)
The Piezoelectric transducer:
These are also used in the measurement of
force, acceleration and pressure
They are made from crystalline materials like
quartz, Rochelle salt and ceramics like barium
titanate
These materials generate a voltage when
deformed.
Contd
The crystals contain molecules with
asymmetrical charge distribution
When pressure is applied, crystal deforms and
there is relative displacement of +ve and ve
charges within the crystal.
This produces external charges of opposite
sign.


Contd
The associated output voltage is given by:
Where C is the capacitance of the crystal
The surface charge is related to the applied
pressure by:
Recall : for a parallel plate cap.

substituting for C:

C v q
o
=
Ap S q
q
=
d
A
C
r o
c c
=
r o
q
o
dp S
v
c c
=
Contd
Letting the voltage sensitivity =

The output voltage becomes:
Reverse Piezoelectric effect:
When an ac voltage is applied across the
piezoelectric crystal, it vibrates at a frequency
determined by its geometry and size.
This reverse effect finds applications in sound
r o
q
S
c c
dp S v
v o
=
Contd
Generators found in toys, watches, electronic
calculators, electronic games, etc.
The piezo crystal can be cut to dimensions
which give it a desired natural frequency.
The frequency is very stable and is used to
stabilize oscillators in radio transmitters ,
clocks, computers, etc.
Step response of the piezoelectric
crystal
63%
t
time
o/p
Applied step
Contd
This is a first order linear device.
Equivalent circuit:
p
C
p
R
Charge amplifier
Output of the piezo crystal is very small and
has to be amplified.
A charge amplifier is used for this purpose.
o
v
p
C
f
C
R
Op amp
Contd
C represents the piezoelectric crystal which
acquires a charge q in proportion to the
applied force F.
is feedback capacitor and R is usually
included to stabilize the amplifier and is of the
order of 100M.
For an ideal operational amplifier, gain and
input impedance are very high.
f
C
Contd
And

i.e. the output is independent of the crystal
and lead capacitances.
Example:
A piezoelectric transducer has a sensitivity of
28pC/N. it is connected to a charge amplifier
with a feedback capacitor of 22nF.
f
o
C
q
v

=
Example contd
Calculate the output of the at the instant a
step input of 5kN is applied.
Solution:
A force of 5kN produces a charge of
q = 28 x 5000 coulomb = 140nC

= 6.36V


6
9
10 22
10 140

= =
x
x
C
q
v
f
o
Example 2
A system of piezo and amplifier has a time
constant of 90 sec. how long will it take to lose
the first 5 sec of the step input?
Solution:
The output voltage is an exponential delay of
the form:
And
5% of step is 0.95V.
t / t
o
Ve v

=
sec 90 = t
Contd
90 /
95 . 0
t
Ve V

=
= 4.6 sec.
Summary on piezoelectric transducers
a) Most transducers exhibit low output
impedances (of the order of 100 to 1000
ohms).
b) With piezo, output impedances are usually
very high and dependent on frequency.
c) The reason being it is like a capacitor where

C j
Z
c
e
1
=
Contd
For static or low frequency applications,
For frequencies of the order of 100kHz
Piezoresistive transducer:
This is change in crystal resistance with
pressure.
They are fabricated from semiconductor
materials e.g. silicon with boron as trace
impurity for p-type.

c
Z
O k Z
c
10
Piezoresistive transducer
and arsenic as trace impurity for the n-type.
Resistivity =

eN
1
=
Where e = electron charge
N = number of charge carriers
= mobility of the charge carriers
which depends on pressure and its
direction relative to crystal axis.

Displacement transducers using

resistive elements
The simplest type of displacement transducer
is the a potentiometer
It consists of a resistive element with a moving
contact
Motion of the contact can be translational,
rotational or a combination of the two (i.e.
helical).
This is a passive device of the 0 order type.
Displacement transducers (contd)
The resistance element is driven by a dc or an
ac voltage and output voltage is a linear
function of input displacement
Materials used
i. wire wound on an insulating cylindrical core,
ii. carbon film or
iii. conduct plastics.
iv. Widely used are wire wound elements
Contd
Major limitation is resolution (typically 40
micro-meter for translational devices and 0.1
for rotational pot of 5cm diameter).
Resolution is improved by use of carbon film
or conductive plastic.
Another limitation is linearity which depends
on the uniformity of resistance along the
resistive element.
Other major problems :


Contd
Spurious output voltages associated with:
i. slider contact bounce
ii. Dirt
iii. Contact wear
iv. Friction and
v. Inertia of the moving parts
Displacement transducers using
capacitive elements
By definition, capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor is given by:

Any variation in any of the parameters in the
expression causes a variation in C.
Examples:
a. Variation in plate separation -
Farads
d
A
C
r
c c
0
=
Contd.
fixed plate movable plate


displacement
Use of a capacitive transducer to
measure pressure
This uses a diaphragm and a static ( fixed)
plate.

diaphragm
pressure

Static plate
Variation in area
This is made of a fixed semi-circular plate a
rotatable semi-circular plate.
As the plate rotates, the area between the
two changes thus changing the capacitance.
Illustration:
Variation in dielectric
This is used to measure fluid levels.
As the amount of fluid changes in a container,
the dielectric constant also changes.
Differential arrangement:
Q
M
P
d 2
C
1
C
x s
v
Contd
It can be shown that:
s s
v
d
x
C C
C
C C
C
v v =
+

+
= A ] [
2 1
1
2 1
2
Contd
In this arrangement, P and Q are fixed and
plate M moves between them.
assume M moves a displacement x towards P
we have:
.
x d
andC
x d
C
r r
+
=

=
c c c c
0
2
0
1
Inductive transducers
By definition, self inductance of a coil is given
by:

Where N is the number of turns and S is the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit and is given
by:

Where are
S
N
L
2
=
A
l
S
r

0
=
r
&
0
Contd
The permeability of free space and the
relative permeability of the material inside the
coil.
Any variation of the above parameters (usually
due displacement ) alters the inductance.
Examples of inductance type transducers:
a. The simplest case is the change in the
number of turns.
Contd
A sliding contact is used to alter the number
of turns.
b. Change in permeability (or reluctance) where
a soft iron plunger is used to alter
permeability.

Linear Variable Differential
Transformer

This consists of a primary coil and two
secondary coils wound in opposition.
A ferromagnetic core (plunger) moves along
the axis of the three coils.
since the two secondary coils are wound in
opposition,
When the core is at its central position,
In practice this condition is not met due to
mismatches in the secondary coils.
2 1
v v v
o
=
0 =
o
v
Contd
When the core is moved away from the
centre, the output voltage rises.
o
v
x -x
0
0 = |
=180 |
Contd
This is a passive 0-order device whose output
depends on both magnitude and direction of
displacement
Sensitivity ranges from 0.1V/cm to 50 mV/m
The complete displacement measurement
system based on the LVDT:
LVDT
oscillator
LVDT
Phase
Sensitive
detector
Low-pass
filter
o
v
Contd
The phase sensitive detector produces an
unsmoothed full-wave rectified signal which is
either +ve or -ve
This smoothed by the low-pass filter to give
The oscillator supplies the primary coil a
reference to the phase sensitive detector.
o
v
Photo-electric transducers
These can be divided into three types:
i. Photo-conductive
ii. Photo-emissive and
iii. Photo-voltaic
Photo-conductive transducer (cell):
These are elements or compounds whose
conductivity increases with intensity of
electromagnetic radiation.
Contd
The radiation is usually in the visible or near
visible part of the spectrum.
Examples of materials are:
Cadmium sulfide
Cadmium selenide
Lead sulfide
Germanium and
silicon
Contd
The material in deposited on a ceramic
substrate in a zig-zag fashion.
Applications:
Automatic daylight switches
Automatic street lights control
Product counting on a production line.
Sorting of objects by size etc.
Contd
Advantages include:
Inexpensive
Rugged
Will withstand shock and vibration
Operates at low voltage with a high enough
output to drive a relay.
Disadvantages can be destroyed by strong
light and heat. Response is rather slow.
Examples of photo-conductive
transducer circuits
Simple circuits:
Photo cell
relay
Photo-emissive transducers
Photo-emissive effect is the emission of
electrons in a vacuum from metal or
semiconductor surfaces
This is as a result of absorption of
electromagnetic energy by these materials.
The e.m. energy is in the visible or near visible
part of the spectrum.
Electrons absorb enough energy from incident
photons to escape from these surfaces.
Illustration

e
Incident photon
Evacuated glass tube
Semi-transparent
photocathode
e
anode
+ -
Contd
Typical circuit used to measure photo-electric
current:
V
cell
L
R
p
i
L p o
R i v =
Contd
Photo-emissive materials are usually
compounds of alkali metals.
Used in conjunction with a photomultiplier,
this transducer finds applications in atomic
absorption spectro-photometry.
for chemical identification of elements.
Photo-multiplier

Light
window
Photo
cathode
photon
Dynode 1 Dynode 3
Dynode 2
final
+700V
+100V +300V
+200V
+600V
Contd
The released electrons are effectively
multiplied by the process of secondary
emission at various stages of dynodes.
The gain of the tube is given by:
Where: ks are constants for a given tube.
n is number of stages
vs is voltage between stages
n k
s
v k G
2
1
=
Semiconductor photo-diode
Depending on the external circuitry, the
photo-diode can be made to operate as a
photo-conductor or a photo-voltaic device (i.e.
generates electrical energy.
These are fabricated from silicon and they
incorporate a p-n junction.
When reverse biased it operates as a
photoconductor and with no bias it is self
generating.
Contd
-V
f
R
o
v
Photovoltaic
configuration
Photoconductive
configuration
Signal conditioning
Transducers produce energy which is very
small and often masked by noise signals.
The purpose of signal conditioning is to bring
the transducer output to a level and form that
is suitable for:
Signal conversion
Signal processing
Indicating or recording
Contd
In passive transducers excitation and
amplification are necessary
In active transducers, amplification is
required.
Filtering may also be required in both cases.
Excitation may be ac or dc

Signal conditioning system
Dc system
transducer
Dc
bridge
Dc
source
Calibration
&
zeroing
Dc
amp
Power
supply
Low
Pass
filter
measurand
Ac system
Ac carrier system:

transdu
cer
Ac
bridge
Calibration
& zeroing
Ac
amp
Phase
Sensitive
detector
Carrier
oscillator
Power
supply
Low
Pass
filter
Signal conditioning
Note in each configuration, the presence of a
bridge after the transducer.
A bridge is used with passive transducers to
produce a change in voltage that is
proportional to a parameter change (e.g. R,
C, or L)
The null indication principle is utilized.
Bridges achieve a very high degree of accuracy

Contd
They are also used in control systems where
one arm of the bridge contains a transducer.
The transducer is sensitive the parameter
being controlled (e.g. temperature).
The Wheatstone Bridge
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
1
I
2
I
A
B
C
D
Bridge analysis
In the bridge circuit, constitute the
ratio arms
is the standard arm and is the unknown
To measure the unknown resistor, the
resistance in one or both ratio arms is
adjusted until balance is achieved.
At balance,
It can then be shown that

2 1
&R R
3
R
4
R
2 1 4 3
&
R R R R
V V V V = =
1
3 2
4
R
R R
R =
Example
Application of the Wheatstone bridge in strain
measurement:
Assume ( strain gauge
resistance with no strain) = R
Assume also that with no strain the bridge is
balanced.
Problem - assume gauge suffers a strain which
results in a resistance change, R
4 3 2 1
R R R R = = =
Contd
(i.e. arm CD has resistance R + R)
Then

And
Therefore the out of balance voltage:
2 2
V
R
RV
V
A
= =
R R
RV
V
C
A +
=
2
R R
R V
R R
RV V
V
AC
A +
A
=
A +
=
2 4 2 2
Contd
Assume that 2R << 4R then:
i.e. out of balance voltage is directly
proportional to change in strain gauge
resistance
Recall:
By definition, gauge factor,



R
R V
V
AC
4
A
=
o R
R
G
A
=
GV
V
AC
4
= o
Contd
i.e. strain is directly proportional to the
bridges out of balance voltage and the meter
can be calibrated to read strain.
This configuration is referred to as a quarter
bridge
Temperature compensation:
Change in strain gauge resistance also
depends on changes in temperature
Temperature compensation
It becomes difficult to say whether R has
resulted exclusively from L or a contribution
from T.
In practice a second identical gauge is placed
in an adjacent arm of the bridge.
Conditions:
Must be kept unstrained
Must be identical to the active gauge

Contd
Must be kept under the same temperature
conditions as the active gauge.
can be the dummy gauge
Let R be resistance change due to T then:


Therefore the out of balance voltage due to
T is zero.
3 2
orR R
2 2 2
) (
&
2
V
R R
V R R
V
V
V
C A
=
A +
A +
= =
Contd
This is a temperature compensated quarter
bridge.
The Half bridge:
To increase sensitivity, a half bridge is used.
This consists of two identical active gauges in
adjacent arms.
These are mounted on opposite sides of the
beam.
The half bridge

1
R
active
3
R
active
1
I
2
I
A
B
C
D
Contd
Analysis of the half bridge:




Therefore the half bridge has twice the
sensitivity of the quarter bridge.
R R R R
V R R
V
V
V
C A
A + + A
A
= =
) (
&
2
R
R V
R
R V
R
VR V
V
AC
2 2 2 2
A
=
A
+ =
The full bridge
All four arms carry active gauges
This configuration achieves the greatest bridge
sensitivity but is very difficult to balance
Two gauges are mounted at the top of the
beam and two at the bottom so that:

1
R
incre
1
R
increases R R A +
2
R
decreases
R R A
3
R increases
R R A +
4
R
decreases to
R R A
to
to
to
Contd
It can be shown that:
Which is four times the sensitivity of the
quarter bridge.
Practical balancing arrangement
R
R V
V
AC
A
=
Summary dc bridges
The bridge can be used in a method called the
null method
Here, one or two resistors are manually
adjusted to achieve balance.
An unknown resistor can be calculated.
It can also be used in the deflection mode
where change in any resistor value by R
results in a proportional voltage
AC
V
Limitations of the Wheatstone bridge
It can measure resistances from a few ohms to
several mega ohms.
The upper limit is set by reduction in
sensitivity
The lower limit is set by resistance of
connecting leads and contact resistance.
To overcome the lower limitation, a modified
Wheatstone bridge is used. This is the Kelvin
bridge
Ac Bridges
These are similar to dc brides but
consist of:
four impedance arms,
an ac source and
an ac detector
The impedances can be combinations of
resistors, capacitors and inductors.
Contd
They are not restricted to measuring
impedances only.
They are also very useful in:
Shifting phases
Providing feedback networks for oscillators
and amplifiers
Filtering out undesirable signals
And measuring frequencies of audio signals
Analysis
In the diagram for the dc bridge, replace all
resistors by impedance equivalents so that at
balance;
This is a general bridge equation
Is applicable to all bridges at balance
regardless of the actual components in the
arms.
In general the impedances are complex and
depend on the frequency of the ac signal.


3 2 4 1
Z Z Z Z =
Contd
For balance, two conditions must be satisfied
simultaneously:
a. Products of opposite arms of the bridge must
be equal.
b. The sums of angles of opposite arms must be
equal.
c. i.e.

3 2 4 1 3 2 4 1
& | | | | + = + = Z Z Z Z
1 1
Z Z = |
Some practical ac bridges
1. Maxwell bridge:
For this bridge,
Arm AB consists of
Arm BC consists of
Arm AD consists of
Arm CD consists of
Question: find -

1 1
parlC R
2
R
3
R
x x
seriesL R
x x
L R &
solution
The impedances of the arms are written as:





x x x
L j R Z
R Z
R Z
C R j
R
Z
e
e
+ =
=
=
+
=
3 3
2 2
1 1
1
1
1
Contd
At balance:



Equating real and imaginary parts on the left
hand and right sides:






3 2 1
Z Z Z Z
x
=

3 2
1 1
1
) (
1
R R L R
R C j
R
x x
= +
+

e
3 2 1
1
3 2
R R C j
R
R R
L j R
x x
e e + = +
1 3 2
1
3 2
& C R R L
R
R R
R
x x
= =
Contd
Note that solutions to the Maxwell bridge are
frequency independent.
In general, ac bridge solutions are frequency
dependent.
2. Similar angle bridge:
This bridge consists of
Arm AB =
Arm BC =
1
R
2
R
Contd
Arm AD =
Arm CD =
Problem find constants in the unknown arm.
Solution:
Impedances in the four arms -


3 3
seriesR C
x x
seriesC R
1 1
R Z =
2 2
R Z =
x
x x
C
j
R Z
C
j
R Z
e
e
=
=
3
3 3
Contd
Solution:






Solution is also frequency independent

) ( ) (
3
3 2 1
C
j
R R
C
j
R R
x
x
e e
=
3
2
2 1
1
1
C
R
j R R
C
R
j R R
x
x
e e
=
3
2
1
1
3 2
& C
R
R
C
R
R R
R
x x
= =
Bridges with frequency dependent
solutions
3. Opposite angle bridge
This is used in the measurement of inductors
with high Q (Q >10)
Maxwell bridge is suitable for coils with Q <
10.
The consists of:
Arm AB =
Arm BC =
1 1
seriesC R
2
R
Contd
Analysis:

x x x
L j R Z
R Z
R Z
C
j
R Z
e
e
+ =
=
=
=
3 3
2 2
1
1 1
3 2
1 1
1 1
R R
C
L
C
jR
L R j R R
x x
x x
= + +
e
e
Contd
x x x x
R C R C R R L L C R R
1 1 1 3 2 1 1
2
& = = e
Contd
4. The Wien bridge-
Finds applications in:
a. Frequency measurements
b. In a harmonic distortion analyzer where it is
employed as a notch filter
c. Audio and HF oscillators where it is the
frequency determining element

Contd
the bridge consists of
arm AB =
Arm BC =
Arm CD =
Arm AD =
The respective impedances are:
1 1
seriesC R
2
R
4
R
3 3
parlC R
Contd
At balance,
4 4
3 3
3
3
2 2
1
1 1
1
R Z
C R j
R
Z
R Z
C
j
R Z
=
+
=
=
=
e
e
Contd
Solution gives the following relationships:




Where
1
3 1 3 1
2
4
2
1
3
3
1
=
= +
C C R R
R
R
C
C
R
R
e
3 1 3 1
2
1
R R C C
f
t
=
Contd
Observe that:
a) The conditions for balance resulted in an
expression determining the required ratio for
balance,

b) and another expression determining the
frequency of the supply voltage
4
2
R
R
Contd
In practice, the components are chosen such
that
This gives the general expression of the Wien
bridge as:

NOTE: use of Wien bridge as a notch filter
a) It has been shown that if the frequency of
the bridge supply is varied, a pinot is reached
where the bridge output is reduced to zero.
C C C R R R = = = =
3 1 3 1
&
RC
f
t 2
1
=
CONTD
b. At this point, f is given by the above
expression.
c. A notch filter has 0 output at resonance.
d. The circuit thus reject f( the fundamental
frequency) and passes all the harmonics.
e. This is useful in a harmonic distortion
analyzer where the passed harmonics are
rectified and fed to a meter calibrated in %
distortion

Contd
f. The greater the distortion, the greater the
amplitude of harmonics that pass through
the bridge and the greater the reading on the
meter.