First Reflection seismic experiment in Oklahoma in 1921

Seismic Reflection is the most important tool we

have to image subsurface structure.
Provides detailed imaging of approximately
horizontal layering in the earth
Reflection seismology is echo or depth sounding


Reflection Seismology
A ship is moving and fires air-
guns about every 10 s.
The pulses travel downward
and are partially reflected back
up from the reflectors
Waves are then recorded by
seismic receivers


Reflection Seismology
The result is a
seismic section
Provides a
picture of the
subsurface
structure
The resulting
structure can be
interpreted as
stratigraphy
Seismic Section
Yet, there are reasons that the
section is NOT true.
Vertical scale is not depth, but
time
Actual time is two-way travel-
time (down and back).
Can be converted to depth,
but must know velocity
structure.

Seismic Section
If layering is not horizontal,
reflections will not come from
directly below the source.
Problem solved using a
migration algorithm.
Seismic Section
There may be multiple
reflections in addition to the
primary reflections
This makes artifacts.
Algorithms exits to minimize.
Seismic Section
The time to travel to a receiver a
distance x away from the source is




Normal Moveout (NMO)
x: srcrec offset (m)

T
0
: vertical travel-time

t(x): moveout wrt offset

h
i
: i
th
layer thickness (m)

V: layer velocity

S: source coordinate

R: receiver coordinate

A: reflection point (mid-
point of ray for flat
layers).


Normal Moveout Derivation
2 2
0 0
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
0
2
2
0
0
2
0
2
0
2 / ( / 2) 2 / / 2
2 2
( / 2) (1 ( / 2 )
2 2 1
1 ( / 2 ) (1 ( / 2 ) )
2
: 1 1 / 2
2 2 2
(
( )
1 / 8 )
8 4
2
2 4
t h v L h x t h v h t v
t h x h x h
v v
h h
t x h x h
v v
binomial approximation x
h h hx x
t x h t
v v vh vh
x
t t
x
t x
v
t t
vt v t
c c
= = + = =
= + = +
= + ~ +
= + ~ +
~ + = + = +
A = ~ + ~ +A
h
v
S M R
0 x/2 x
L L
Normal moveout derivation
t: travel-time
L: right triangle hypotenuse
v: velocity of layer (km/s)
t
0
: two-way time
x: source-receiver offset
h: layer thickness (km)

Rearrange NMO equation for
the velocity of the layer




t
o
: two way travel-time (s)
x: offset from src-rec (km)
t(x): moveout at x-offset (s)



Normal Moveout (NMO)
1
0
Layer Velocity
2 t
x
v
t
~
A
What velocity should be used for two layers?
Answer: Root Mean Square (RMS) velocity

i
: one wave interval time (top to bottom time)





Multiple Layers
2 2
1 1 2 2
2,
1 2
rms
v v
v
t t
t t
+
=
+
2,
0,2 2

2 t
rms
x
v
t
=
A
Can solve for v
2

Can iterate this procedure
for deeper layers
Another way to calculate velocity of any layer

B index: layer bottom
T index: layer top
v
layer
: layer velocity
t
B
: 2-way tt to layer bottom
t
T
: 2-way tt to layer top
v
rms,B
RMS velocity to bottom
v
rms,T
RMS velocity to top







Multiple Layers: Dix formula
2 2
, ,

rms B B rms T T
layer
B T
v t v t
v
t t
+
=
+
Almost always the reflections are weak and are hard to
recognize because of inevitable noise

To increase the signal-to-noise ratio, stacking is used

Take repeated measurements and average

Signal (reflections) add constructively and noise cancels




Stacking
Finding layer velocities and stacking done simultaneously
Try range of v
rms
NMO correct the times of the seismograms

If the v
rms
is correct
strong reflections are found

If v
rms
is incorrect
Reflections are not found.




Stacking
Dipping Reflectors
If a reflector is dipping, its
apparent position and dip are
wrong in an unmigrated section.
Wave raypaths are least-time
paths and hence reflect from up
dip points.
Unmigrated reflector is
shallower and with less dip.
Travel-time hyperbola offset: h
(thickness), alpha (dip)





x= 2h sino A
Curved Reflectors: Syncline
If a interface is sufficiently
curved, there can be more than
one reflection returned from the
interface: multi-pathing.
As the shot point is shifted from 1
to 10, three arrivals are produced
that make a bow tie travel-time
pattern.
Migration can unwrap the bow-
tie to improve the quality of the
migrated image.



Curved Reflectors: Anticline
Anticline has simpler response
wrt Syncline.

An anticline seismic image is
broadened

At edges of anticline two arrivals
exist.




Migration
Correcting for the position
and shape of the reflector is
called migration

Complicated and requires
large amounts of computer
time

Be aware of possible
distortions in un-migrated
sections




Faulted Reflectors
Consider a point source (reflector).
The distance that a source-receiver
measures is on the arcs shown
Multiple source-receivers produce
the reflection hyperbola shown
A stepped reflector behaves
normally except near the step
Produces a reflection hyperbola
Difficult to tell position of fault
Migration removes diffraction
effects and reveals features more
clearly




Faulted Reflectors
Migration removes diffraction effects and reveals
features more clearly




Multiple Reflections
The positions of multiples can be
anticipated from the position of
the primary reflectors
However, sometimes it is
difficult to recognize a primary
reflector that comes in with the
same TWT as the multiples
Can be distinguished
Moveout for the primary is
less than for the multiple, so it
stacks using a higher velocity



Most common source is an Air Gun
Produces P-waves (no S-waves)
Receiver is a hydrophone
Microphone that responds to change in pressure
Mounted at regular intervals and towed behind the
ship in a streamer


Marine Surveys
Most common source is an explosion
Buried small charge fired by detonator
Receiver is a geophone
Often times in clusters to improve s/n ratio
Moving the system on land is much harder resulting in
much more expense


Land Surveys
The output of each receiver is connected to an amplifier
Data is recorded digitally
sampled at regular intervals, often only 1 msec

Data Recording
Common Depth Point Stacking
Common Depth Point Stacking (CDP) uses rays
that have all reflected from the same part of the
interface
Uses pairs of shot points and receivers that are
symmetrical about the reflector point
CDP stacking gives better data for computing
velocities and stacking
Number of channels that are
added are the fold
240-fold stacking is common


Static Corrections
In Land Surveys, significant topography has to be
corrected for
Additionally, must take into account the effect of
the topsoil and other weathered layers
Called Static Corrections
puts data on convenient
horizontal plane


Data Display
Deep reflections are weaker due to energy loss and
spreading
Sometimes amplified to compensate- equalization


Vibroseis
Vibroseis produces a continuous wave with changing
frequency
To find the travel time, the recorded signal is shifted in
time until the entire waveform matches the source
The energy required is small
An advantage where non-intrusive is preferred


Vibroseis
The waves are generated by a vehicle with a plate that
presses rhythmically against the ground
instantaneous force of 15 tonnes
1 metric tonne =1000 kg or 2205 lb
Frequency is swept from 10 to 100 Hz over 30 sec
Sometimes several vehicles operate in unison
increases energy
has reached
Moho (30 km)


What is a Reflector?
Rays are reflected when they meet an interface
Abrupt change in seismic velocity
How abrupt?
We can define the acoustic impedance




( )
3
where
is the density
and
is the longitudinal velocity of the material
Z v
kg
m
v

=
| |
|
\ .
Reflection Coefficient
Reflection coefficient




Transmission coefficient



Only valid for normal rays



2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
reflected
incident
a
v v
R
a v v

= =
+
1 1
2 2 1 1
2
transmitted
incident
a v
T
a v v

= =
+
Reflection Coefficient
Because the S-wave velocity and the P-wave velocities
are different, their coefficients of reflection can also
differ.
Sometimes S-waves are reflected more strongly than P-
waves.

Consider the ratio of reflected energy




2
2
2 2
1
reflected
transmitted
E R
E T
and
R T
=
=
+ =
Check on
this
Reflection Coefficient Example
Calculate the reflection coefficient of sandstone
overlying limestone.
Suppose that the properties of sandstone are at the
bottom of their ranges while those of limestone are at the
top




( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
2
2
2.8 6 2.05 2
0.608
2.8 6 2.05 2
Thus,
0.608 0.37 strong reflector
reflected refle
v v
R
v v
E R

= = =
+ +
= = =
Reflection Coefficient Example
Suppose instead we have materials with different
properties:







Lithological boundary, but no seismic boundary
In reality, may produce a weak reflector




( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
2
2.64 3 2.40 3.3
0
2.64 3 2.40 3.3
Thus,
0!
reflected refle
v v
R
v v
E R

= = =
+ +
= =
Bright Spot
The interface in a hydrocarbon reservoir between a gas
layer and underlying oil or water produces a strong
reflection
Called a bright spot

A strong, horizontal bright spot
Evidence for presence of gas


Vertical Resolution
Suppose two interfaces could be brought progressively
closer together
Reflected pulses would overlap more and more
At some point, the pulses cannot be resolved






The shape of the combined pulses also changes


Vertical Resolution
Often the two interfaces are two sides of a thin layer
sandwiched within another
Shale layer within Sandstone
One interface has positive R and other negative
Negative R means that the reflected pulse is
inverted




Interference
Can produce no reflected wave


Vertical Resolution
Since the pulse reflected from the lower interface has to
travel further by twice the separation of the interfaces
Difficult to resolve when they are less than half a
wavelength apart



Vertical resolution can be improved by using a
shorter pulse
Shorter pulses are more rapidly attenuated
Must compromise between resolution and depth
penetration



( )
2 <
2
<
4
h
h

o
Vertical Resolution
Another situation where there is no reflection is when an
interface is a gradual change of velocities and densities
extending over more than about half a wavelength, rather
than being abrupt

Can be thought of as many thin, sandwiched layers
Interference causes cancelation

Lithological boundary with no seismic reflector



Synthetic Reflection Seismograms
Can be used to improve interpretation
First, choose a pulse that corresponds to the source
Next, calculate the reflection and transmission
coefficients
Based on borehole data
Propagate the pulse
down through
the layers



Synthetic Reflection Seismograms
If there are several interfaces closer together than the
length of the average wavelength of the pulse, the
reflected pulses often combine to give peaks that do no
coincide with any of the interfaces



3D Surveying
We are often interested in the form of structures
perpendicular to the seismic sections we have been
studying
There can be reflections from dipping interfaces outside
the plane of the section
Sideswipe
This can be addressed by using a regular grid on the
surface (3D survey)
Often times the grid is on 50 m spacing



3D Surveying
A CDP gather comprises pairs of shot points and
receivers from all around the CDP
Stacking , migration follow the same principles
Obviously more difficult and computer intensive



3D Surveying
We can think of the reflectors revealed as being
embedded in a block
Can take slices in any direction

More sophisticated processing can reveal properties of
the rock such as porosity
Determines the amount
of hydrocarbon that a
rock can hold



3D Surveying
May want to add the image from plate 6 of the book here
and comment on the use of porosity



Time-Lapse Modeling
By repeating surveys at intervals, the extraction of
hydrocarbons can be followed and remaining pockets of
oil detected

Though 3D surveying is much more expensive, both for
data acquisition and reduction, it can pay for itself in the
increased understanding of the structure of hydrocarbon
reservoirs



Forming Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Organic material (minute plants & animals) is buried in a
source rock that protects it from oxidation (often clays in
a sedimentary basin)
Bacterial action operating at temperatures of 100 to
200C changes the organic matter into droplets of oil
The droplets are squeezed out of the source rock
Being lighter than water, usually move upward
Deformation can cause them to move sideways
Impervious cap rock (shale) prevents leakage
To be extractable, reservoir rock must be porous and
permeable
To be commercially viable, must be concentrated



Hydrocarbon Traps
Structural Traps result from tectonic processes
Folds, domes, faults, etc



Hydrocarbon Traps
Stratigraphic Traps are formed by lithological variation
in the strata at the time of deposition
Lens of permeable and porous sandstone or a
carbonate reef, surrounded by impermeable rocks



Hydrocarbon Traps
Combination Traps have both structural and stratigraphic
features
Where low density salt is squeezed upwards to form a
salt dome, both tilting strata and causing
hydrocarbons to concentrate as well as blocking off
their escape



Hydrocarbon Traps
How can hydrocarbon traps be located with seismic
reflection?
Easiest to recognize are structural ones.
Stratigraphic traps which have tilted reservoir rcoks
terminating upwards in an unconformity are also
fairly easy to spot
Bright spots show presence of gas-oil or gas-water
interface
Smaller and harder to recognize traps are being exploited
High quality surveys necessary
Closely spaced stations, high resolution sources
Precise processing of data


Sequence Stratigraphy
Sequence stratigraphy is the building up of a stratigraphy
using seismic sections
Can provide constraints on global sea-level change
Used as a dating tool
Possible because chronostratigraphic boundaries
(surfaces formed within a negligible interval of time)
are also often reflectors
Stratigraphic sequence
Sequence of strata of common genesis bounded by
unconformities


Sequence Stratigraphy
How a sequence is built up and terminated depends on
the interplay of deposition and changes in sea level
(eustatic changes)
Complex, but all we are concerned with is the relative
sea level changes while the sediments are being
deposited


Sequence Stratigraphy
Consider deposition along a
coastline where sediments are
being supplied by a river, and
sea level is constant
Prograding succession
Thinning at top
Top lap


Sequence Stratigraphy
Consider deposition along a
coastline where sediments are
being supplied by a river, and
sea level is rising steadily
Successive near horizontal
layers
Onlap where they butt up
to the coastline


Sequence Stratigraphy
Slow rise in sea level (and
constant sea level) results in
progradation (lateral buildup
of stratigraphy)


Rapid rise of sea level results
in aggradation (vertical
buildup of stratigraphy


Sequence Stratigraphy
An unconformity
defines the boundary of a
sequence
occurs when sea level falls
fast enough for erosion
rather than deposition to
occur
Moderate sea level retreat
Truncates tops of beds
Rapid sea level retreat
Erosion cuts laterally


Sequence Stratigraphy
Beds that end are
termed discordant
Appear in
seismic
sections as
reflectors that
cease laterally
Can be used for
working out the
history of
deposition and
erosion


Sequence Stratigraphy and Eustasy
Sequence stratigraphy provides a record of the changes
in local relative sea level
Types and volumes of various facies within the sequence
provides constraints on the amounts of rise and fall of
sea level
Fossils taken from boreholes can be used to estimate
their times
Correlations between widely separated basins can be
used to determine global sea level changes.