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Nervous System Def: The master control/communication system of the body. Functional organization: On chalk board.

Components: Two main cell types. 1. Neuroglia 2. Neurons Neuroglia (glia) cells: Provide support to nerves

Types of neuroglia Located in the central nervous system: 1. Atrocytes 2. Microglia, 3.Ependymal, 4. Oligodendrocytes. Located in the peripheral nervous system: 1. satellite cells 2. schawnn cells.

Astrocytes : The most abundant supporting cell Have many processes which cling to neurons and capillaries. Form a protective barrier between the capillaries and neurons. Facilitates transfer of substances between capillaries and neurons. Help to maintain the appropriate chemical environment surrounding the neuron.

Microglia: Small ovoid cells with long thorny processes. Are believed to be derived from monocytes. Help to protect the CNS through phagocytosis of microbes and debries etc.

Ependymal cells A range of cells many of which are ciliated. Line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal cord. Forms a barrier between CSF and tissue fluid Cilia help to sweep the CSF along so that it bathes the brain and spinal cord. Oligodentrocytes:Have very few branches. Rap around the larger nerves forming insulators called myelin sheath.

Satellite cells: Found rapped around the cell bodies of neurons in the PNS. Helps to maintain the chemical environment of the neurons. Schwann cells: Found rapped around the nerve fibers of larger neurons in the PNS. Form myelin sheath which insulate and protect neurons. Myelin sheath is comprised of lipoprotein Enhance nerve impulse conduction.

Characteristics of Neuroglia Are smaller than nerve cells. Most have branches and a cell body like nerve cells. Outnumber neurons in the CNS by as many as 50- 1 Constitute about half of brain mass Give nervous tissue a firm texture. Functions: Provides structural support and scaffolding to N Insulate and segregate neurons. Contributes to the blood-brain-barrier.

Neurons: Structural units of the nervous system. Conduct impulses throughout the body. Have extreme longevity. Are amitotic Have very high metabolic rate requiring a constant supply of oxygen and glucose. Components of a neurons 1. Cell body 2. Axon 3. Axon terminals 4. Dendrites

Cell body The receptive or imput region. Size 5-140um Have most organelles but no centrioles. Most cell bodies are located in the CNS and are called nuclei. Cell bodies located in the PNS are called ganglia

Axon: (conducting zone) Cytoplasmic process arising from the cell body. Only one per cell, May be short, long or absent. Begins at the axon hillock or trigger zone. Terminates into extensions called telodendria. Long axons are called nerve fibers. Long axons with wider diameters conduct impulses more rapidly. Axon terminals (knobs or boutons): Bulb-like endings of telodendria containing neurotransmitters.

Functions of the axon: Conduct impulses away from the cell boy. Axon terminals secrete neurotransmittens

Dendrites: Shorter processes of cytoplasmic extensions Several per cell


Functions of dentrites Receive impulses or electrical signals and conduct them to the cell body.

u Note: Schwan cells wrap around axons in the PNS, do not touch but forms gaps called nodes of ranvier (NOR).
NOR enhance speed of impulse conduction. Classification of neurons (Structural) 1.Multipolar 2. Bipolar 3. Unipolar Classication of neurons (functional) 1.Sensory- unipolar 2. Motor -multipolar 3. Association - multipolar

Neurophysiology Neurons are excitable (irritable) cells ie. they respond to stimuli when adequately stimulated The response to a stimuli is to conduct an impulse. This is called an action potential. Action potential: A rapid event which causes the electrical charge in the cell membrane to change from, for eg. 70mv to 30mv. (eg. muscle contract.). Is initiated by a stimulus. The stimulus must be of at the threshold level Recall the all-or-none principle?

Factors which affect the speed of impulse conduction Axon diameter. Larger diameter greater speed. Myelin sheet = saltatory conduction (explain). Classification of nerve fibers: Based on speed. G roup A fiber-skeletal M. & joints 15-150 m/s G roup B ANS sensory and from skin-315m/s G roup C- Have no myelin sheath hence no saltatory conduction and are of small diameter-

Synapse Def: Junction where transmission of nerve impulse occurs from one neuron to another or from a neuron to an effector. It involves the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another neuron or an effector. P arts of a synapse Presynaptic N.- The information sender. Postsynaptic N. or effector such as a muscle or a gland The recipient. The synaptic cleft

Impulse transmission across a chem. synapse An action potential is conducted by the axon from the pre-synaptic neuron towards the synaptic cleft. The NT is released from the axon terminals into the synaptic cleft. The NT attaches to specific receptor sites on the post synaptic neuron or effector. If it is a post synaptic neuron it will in turn conduct the impulse if that was the desired. If it is an organ or a gland, it will either be excited or be inhibited as desired.

Types of synapses 1. Electrical S. > Impulses flow from neuron to neuron through protein channels. > Very rapid but uncommon > Occurs in smooth,& cardiac muscles & eyes 2. Chemical S. > Involves the action of neurotransmitters(NT) > NT flows from pre SN to post SP > NT attaches to the receptor sites of PSN > Results in either excitation or inhibition. > Ends in termination of the action(1of 3 ways

Termination of the effects of NT This is done in one of three ways. 1.Degradation by enzymes produced by the post synaptic neuron or that are found in the synaptic cleft, eg. in the case of ACH. 2.Reuptake by the pre-synaptic neuron for storage or to be destroyed eg. norepnephrine. 3.Diffusion of the neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft, thus ending its effect.

The brain The highest center of the nervous system. Located in the cranium Size of your two fist Pinkish-grey colour Wrinkled like a wall nut Consistency of cold oatmeal Weight- 1600g in males, 1450g in female. Size the same for men and women.

Regions of the brain Cerebral hemisphere Diencephalon Brain stem Cerebellum Organization of cerebrum & cerebellum(front) Cortex the outer region known as the grey matter. Comprised of cell bodies. Medulla The inner region known as the white matter. Comprised of myelinated fibers surrounding a central cavity the ventricles. Nuclei Scattered grey matter in white matter.

Organization contd towards the brain stem White matter with myelinted fibers are located towards the outer region Patches of grey matter towards the center surrounding the central cavities ie the ventricles This pattern extends to the spinal cord. The venticles Four cavities located centrally within the brain. Connects to the central canal of the spinal cord. Communicates to each other by apertures: > the 2 lateral Ventricles. > the 3rd and the 4th ventricles.

Ventricles contd The apertures of the fourth ventricle open into the subarachnoid space (between B. coverings) Cerebrospinal fluid fill the cavities and surround the brain and the spinal cord. The cavities are lined with ependymal cells which produce the CSF.

The cerebrum The most superior & largest portion of the brain. Accounts for about 83% of total brain mass Covers the brain stem and diencephalon. Surface shows elevated ridges called gyri Gyri are separarted by grooves called sulci. Deep sulci called fissures separate the cerebrum into regions. The longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum into two halves, the right and left hemispheres. The transverse fissure separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum.

The cerebral hemispheres Each hemisphere is divided into 5 lobes. 1. Frontal lobe 2. Parietal lobe 3. Occipital lobe 4. Temporal lobe 5. Insula 1. 3. Cerebral lobes are separated by sulci named according to their location. Parieto-occipital sulcus, 2.Lateral sulcus Central sulcus

The insula Located at the floor of the lateral sulcus and covered by part of the frontal, prietal and temporal lobes.

The front and middle cranial cavity is filled with the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. The posterior cavity contains the occipital lobe w/ the cerebellum and brain stem below it. Cerebral cortex The outer layer of the cerebrum 2-4 mm thick. Makes up 40% of the brain mass Consist of cell bodies, dendrites & unmyelinated fibers. The seat of consciousness and all conscious behaviour Functions in perception, communication, memory, comprehension, & vol. movement etc.

Cerebral cortex contd Consist of three functional areas 1. Motor areas Control voluntary motor F 2. Sensory areas Conscious awareness of sensation. 3. Association areas Integrates information leading to purposeful action. Each hemisphere controls the sensory and motor functions of the opposite side of the body. Both hemispheres have similar structures but the left is dominant in about 90% in all people.

Motor area: Located in the fontal lobe Controls all voluntary functions The primary motor cortex Controls skeletal muscles. The premotor cortex- Cont. learned motor skills Brocas area controls ability to articulate. The frontal eye field- voluntary eye movement. Note: Brocas speech area controls the ability to form words when speaking. Controls muscles of the tongue, throat and lips.

Sensory area Located in the parietal lobe Receives, integrates, analyzes and determines responses to sensory impulses. It includes: The primary somatosensory cortex The somatosensory association area Other sensory areas- located in other areas Visual areas- located in the occipital lobe Auditory cortex located superior temporal lobe Olfactory cortex - in the medial temporal lobe Gustatory cortex- in the parietal lobe

Association areas Link primary sensory cortex to motor areas. 1.Prefrontal cortex- Area responsible for abstrac ideas, judgment, reasoning, mood, emotions etc. 2. General interpretation (gnostic) - associated w/ memmory. Helps to integrate sen. input 3. Wenickes area- found in left hemisphere only. Helps in understanding written and spoken language. 4. Affective language A- involves the non-verbal and emotional content of language.

Visceral association area Located in the insula Controls visceral sensations eg. An upset stomach and a full bladder. Left vs. right hemisphere. Both are nearly identical Each has unique abilities The dominant hemisphere is the one with greater control over language. Left H- dominant in 90% of people- Rt. handed Right H- dominant in 10% - Lt. handed

Cerebral white matter Located inferior to the cerebral cortex. Comprised of bundles of myelinated fibers which connect areas within the brain, and between the brain and the spinal cord. Basal nuclei(basal ganglia)- groups of cell bodies found within the white matter which play a role in balance, coordination and cognition.

Diencephalon (fore brain)- comprised of: Thalamus 80% of diencephalon. Sorts and edits impulses going and coming from the cerebral cortex. Influences arousal. Hypothalamus- located below thalamus and above the brain stem. Connected to the pituitary G. Functions- autonomic control, emotions, temp., food intake, water balance, sleep-wake cycle, endocrine functions. Epithalamus Forms roof of 3rd ventricle. Attach to Pineal body. Pineal body secretes melatonin. With hypothalamus helps to regulate sleep-wake cycle. Also influences mood.

Brain stem. Consist of: Midbrain- Located below diencephalon and pons. Consist of motor and sensory nerve tracts to & from cortex, nuclei (include CIV & CIII) & fibers which connects it to cerebellum Functionthe relay point for sensory and motor impulses. P ons- Located between mid-brain and medulla oblongata. Contains sensory and motor nerve tracts to and from higher centers and to cerebellum. Sites for many nuclei eg.(CV, CVI, CVII). Forms part of the reticular formation and contains part of the respiratory center. Helps to regulate respiration.

Medulla Oblongata also part of brain stem Located between pons & spinal cord. Continues w/. SC below at level of foramen magnum. Consist of motor nerve tracts which cross or decussate (decussation of pyramids). Contains sensory nerves some of which also cross en route to higher centers of brain. Connects to cerebellum via nerve tracts. Contains cell bodies of CVIII CXII Functions in maintaining homeostasis in CVS, Resp. system, vomiting, hiccup, swalloing, coughing sneezing.

Cerebellum Cauliflower-like structure. Approx. 11% of brain. Located in posterior cranial fossa inferior to occipital lobe of cerebrum & dorsally to pons and medulla oblongata. Separated from cerebrum by transverse fissure. Has 2 hemispheres joined medially by vermis. Each hemisphere has 3 lobes. Has outer cortical inner medullary regions. Connects to the rest of the CNS via nerve tracts Functions- Helps to regulate co-ordination in body movements and balance.

Functional brain systems Limbic system Reticular activating system Limbic System A complex group of nerve tracts and nuclei Located medially in both hemispheresdienceph Connects to higher & lower areas of CNS. Called the emotional/affective brain. Functions-control fear, rage,happiness appetite, links odours to past experience, sexual interest.

Reticular Formation Location-extends through the center of medulla, pons and mid brain. Comprised of neurons and nerve fibers. Connects to hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebrum and spinal cord. Functions in maintaining arousal of the brain by relaying sensory signals to the cortex to keep the brain alert/conscious. Impulse relay to the cerebral cortex is via its reticular activating system(RAS). RAS filters impulses, so that only strong & unfamiliar signals get through to cerebral cortex.

Brain protection : accomplished by : The bones of the skull Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid Blood-brain-barrier Meninges Triple layer of connective tissue. Surrounds brain and spinal cord. 1. Dura mater- Outer layer. 2 layers. Invaginates. 2. Arachnoid M-Middle layer. Cover brain loosely. 3. Pia M.- Delicate layer covering brain. Cont. BV Functions- Protect CNS, bld. V, VS,. Cont. CSF

Cerebrospainal fluid A watery fluid similar to blood plasma. Circulates within ventricles and subarachnoid S. Compared to blood plasma, CSF has: -Less protein, potassium and calcium ions. -More magnesium and hydrogen ions. Produced by choroid plexuses within ventricles. About 900-1200mls/day.150mls replaced/3-4hr. Functions- cushions brain & SC, reduces brain weight through buoyancy, prevents brain from crashing, protects from trauma, helps to nourish brain.

Blood-brain-barrier Def. Aprotective mechanism which helps to maintain a stable environment around the brain. It includes: Specialized capillaries w/ continuous endothelium Capillaries have thick basement membrane. Astrocytes wrapped around capillaries separating them from the neurons allowing only certain molecules through eg glucose, aa, Na, Cl, O2, CO2, fats & fatty acids & fat soluble molecules. NB. Capillaries are more permeable in specific areas of the brain eg. hypothalamus & vomit C.

The spinal cord Enclosed in the vertebral column Extends from the medulla oblongata to the 1st lumbar vertebra (re: lumbar puncture). Approx. 42cm (17ins) long and1.8cm.(3/4in) thick. Like the brain it is protected by the menninges The dura mater does not line the vertebral canal like. Result a large epidural space. Conus medullaris-its tapering cone-shaped end. Filum terminale:Pia mater extends to coccyx. Cauda equinas-Spinal nerve collection end of SC.

Spinal cord contd Has 31 pairs of spinal nerves named according to the area of the SC they emerge. > 8 cervical > 12 thoracic > 5 lumbar > 5 sacral > 1 coccygeal Functions: 1. Pathway to and from higher brain centers. 2. Center for reflex actions. 3. Can initiate some complex motor activity

Structure of the spinal cord Slightly flattered from front to back H-shaped gray matter in the center Gray matter consist of neuron cell bodies,unmyelinated fibers and neuroglia. Central canal at the center of the cross-section of the H shaped gray matter. The posterior tips of the H are the dorsal horns The anterior tips of the H form the ventral horns Lateral horns between dorsal & ventral horns.

White matter of spinal cord Consist of myelinated and unmyelinated fibers unning up to the higher brain centers & down from it. Nerve fibers are called tracts Nerve fibers cross over at some point on their way up to and down. Most tracts consist of 2 or 3 neurons 1st order 2nd order and 3rd order neuron. All tracts are paired, right side and left side.

Ascending (sensory ) tracts Conducts sensory impulses to brain through 2or 3 successive neurons, 1st,2nd,3rd order. Eg. A touch is picked up by touch receptores in the skin sss sensory neuron (1st order) spinal cord via the dorsal root ganglia 2nd order neuron in medulla where it crosses to the opposite side 3rd order neuron in the thalamus then to the sensory area in the cerebral cortex.

Descending (motor) tracts Are of two types: 1.Pyramidal tracts: originate in the motor cortex. Cross to the opposite side in medulla to bring response to the opposite side of the body. 2.Extrapyramidal tracts: originate in nuclei below cortex. Cross in the spinal cord. Consist of two neurons: 1.Upper motor neuron neuron w/ cell body in cortical or subcortical region of brain. 2.Lower motor neuron- Neuron with cell body in spinal cord.

Note. Motor neuron leave the spinal cord via the dorsal root ganglia. Peripheral Nervous System Def: Neural structures outside the brain and SC It includes: Sensory receptors, Sensory nerves and their ganglia Motor nerves.

Sensory receptors Def: structures which pick up stimuli in the internal and external environment. Types: According to location, types of stimuli detected a and according to location. According to location 1.Exteroreceptors- Also called tactile sensation. - Located in the skin - Includes touch, pressure, temperature, pain, vibration

2. Interoceptors Also called visceroceptors Located in organs within the body eg. blood V. 3. Proprioceptors Located in muscles, joints, tendons, ligaments, connective tissue coverings of bones and muscles. According to type of stimuli detected Mechanoreceptors-touch, pres, vbration, stretch Thermoreceptors- Temperarute Photoreceptors- Light Chemoreceptors- molecules smelled, taste, bld.

According to complexity Simple receptors - Are wide spread - Simple in structure and function - Fund in skin mucous membranes, muscles and connective tissue. Complex receptors - Associated with the special senses - Confined to localized areas - Some quite complex - Eg, Vision, hearing, smell, taste

Nerves Comprise the peripheral nervous system (PNS) Composed of bundles of fibers enclosed in several rapings. Endomycium- raps each fiber Perimycium- surrounds bundles of fibers called fascicles. Epimycium- Encloses the nerve. Nerves vary in size- A, B, C fibers Twelve (12) pairs of cranial nerves C1 to C12. Thirty-one (31) pairs of spinal nerve named according to the area of the spinal cord Asso w/

G anglia A collection of cell bodies located in the PNS. Most are located near the spinal cord. P lexuses An interlacing of branches of certain motor nerves as they emerge from the spinal cord. Allows for the limbs to have nerve supply from more than one nerve. Prevents complete paralysis when nerves are damaged. Eg,. Cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral. Dermatomes-Skin segments & their nerve supply.

Spinal reflexes Def: A rapid predictable motor response to a stimulus. Is involuntary/subconscious. Triggered by the spinal cord. The brain is made aware but does not control it. Involves a series of events together called a reflex arc.

Components of a reflex arc Receptor Site of stimulus Sensory neuron- Transmits impulse to the SC Integrating center- The spinal cord. + or an inter/association neuron- Transmit the impulse to the motor neuron Motor neuron- Returns response from the integration center to the effector. Effector- A muscle or a gland.

Types of reflexes According to function Somatic Reflexes - Found in skeletal muscles Visceral Reflexes- Visceral effectors eg. smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands. According to distance from the body surface. Deep tendon Superficial Patella > Plantar Biceps > Babinskis Triceps > Abdominal Archilles > Cremastatic

The Autonomic Nervous System Comprised of motor nerves which conduct impulses to smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands. Has two divisions- SNS and ParaNS Comprised of two-neuron chain The 1st neuron is the preganglionic neuron (PGN).Its cell body is located in the brain or SC. The 2nd neuron is the postganglionic neuron. Its cell body located in a ganglion outside the CNS. Conduction of impulses in the ANS is slow compared to the somatic nervous system.

Sympathetic VS Parasympathetic NS Sites of origin-Craniosacral and thoracolumbar. Length of fibers- In SNS preganglionic fibers short and postpanonic fibers long. In paraSNS- preganglionic fibers long & post fibers short Location of ganglion- For SNS near the SC. For the paraSNS in the effector.

Neurotransmitters in the ANS Acetylcholine (ACH) at all preganglionic fibers. ACH at postganglionic fibers at all paraSNS. Norepinephrine and or epinephrine at postganlionic fibers in the SNS. Note: Both branches of the ANS suply viseral organs, but they act opposite to each other ie they counterbalance each other and in doing so maintains homeostasis. Generally the SNS speeds up activities while the ANA slows down activities.

The parasympathetic division Referred to as the resting or the digestive system Also called the digestive, defecation, diuresis division. Mostly active when the body is non-stressed or is at rest. Tends to conserve body energy Functions in enabling the body to carry out functions such as digestion and elimination. Causes HR, Resp. BP etc. Nerves comprised the craniosacral outflow.

Sympathetic Nervous System Known as the fight or flight system. Also Called the exercise, excitement, emergency embarassment division. Activated during excitement, emergencies, fear or threats. Causes for eg. A bounding heart, rapid Res., cold sweaty skin dilated pupils. Enables the body to cope when threatened. Nerves comprised the thoracolumbar outflow. Note: ANS also controlled by the hypothalamus and other higher brain centers.

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