UNIT II Casting Metallurgy

Shrinkage
Total reduction in volume of a casting due to partial reductions at each stage of solidification. Reduction in volume at each stage of solidification of a casting.

Volume change (contraction) that occurs when molten metal solidifies after being cast into a pattern mold. It is compensated for in three ways: by using the indicated water:powder ratio for the refractory investment to gain the maximal setting expansion of which that investment is capable; by exposing the investment to moisture as the refractory investment sets, causing some hydroscopic expansion; and by properly heating the mold to achieve thermal expansion. The total expansion must equal the contraction of the metal being cast.

 There are three types of shrinkage: shrinkage of the liquid, solidification shrinkage and patternmaker's shrinkage. The shrinkage of the liquid is rarely a problem because more material is flowing into the mold behind it. Solidification shrinkage occurs because metals are less dense as a liquid than a solid, so during solidification the metal density dramatically increases. Patternmaker's shrinkage refers to the shrinkage that occurs when the material is cooled from the solidification temperature to room temperature, which occurs due to thermal contraction.

Progressive & Directional Solidification

Directional solidification and progressive solidification describe types of solidification within castings. Directional solidification describes solidification that occurs from farthest end of the casting and works its way towards the sprue. Progressive solidification, also known as parallel solidification,is solidification that starts at the walls of the casting and progresses perpendicularly from that surface.

 Most metals and alloys shrink as the material changes from a liquid state to a solid state. Therefore, if liquid material is not available to compensate for this shrinkage a shrinkage defect forms. When progressive solidification dominates over directional solidification a shrinkage defect will form.

The geometrical shape of the mold cavity has direct effect on progressive and directional solidification. At the end of tunnel type geometries divergent heat flow occurs, which causes that area of the casting to cool faster than surrounding areas; this is called an end effect. Large cavities do not cool as quickly as surrounding areas because there is less heat flow; this is called a riser effect. Also note that corners can create divergent or convergent (also known as hot spots) heat flow areas. In order to induce directional solidification chills, risers, insulating sleeves, control of pouring rate, and pouring temperature can be utilized.

 Directional solidification can be used as a purification process. Since most impurities will be more soluble in the liquid than in the solid phase during solidification, impurities will be "pushed" by the solidification front, causing much of the finished casting to have a lower concentration of impurities than the feedstock material, while the last solidified metal will be enriched with impurities. This last part of the metal can be scrapped or recycled. The suitability of directional solidification in removing a specific impurity from a certain metal depends on the partition coefficient of the impurity in the metal in question, as described by the Scheil equation. Directional solidification is frequently employed as a purification step in the production of multicrystalline silicon for solar cells.

Degassing
Degassing is the most effective way of reducing porosity. Degassing involves bubbling argon and/or other gases through the melt to absorb hydrogen and other impurities.

 There are various methods of degassing media helium sparging, warming, and subsequent filtering and vacuum degassing are the most popular. The method suggested in the USP is to heat the media to 45C then filter it through a 0.45m filter under vacuum and stirred for about 5 minutes before being placed directly into the dissolution vessel (the paddles/baskets should be switched off until the analysis is ready to start). At no time must the temperature be allowed to drop below 37C. This method of degassing has been shown to reduce the level of dissolved gases by about 85% which is enough to ensure that the air will not affect the dissolution results.

Helium Sparging
Helium sparging can be effective but is costly to use for large volumes, as it requires a constant supply of helium gas to continually bubble through the media. It degasses the liquid by absorbing the gases that are dissolved in the media into the helium bubbles and carrying them out of solution. One of the major problems with this method is that the media can become saturated with helium which causes similar problems to being saturated with air and it is difficult to measure the amount of helium in the liquid.

Warming & Filtering

Heating and filtering the media is fairly reliable and is the method described in USP 23 (it actually specifies heating to 45 C, followed by filtration through a 0.45m filter membrane). This will remove about 85% of the dissolved oxygen, although the media then has to be cooled before the dissolution test which gives it time to reaerate.

Vacuum Degassing
Vacuum degassing can remove more than 95% of the dissolved gas and if the media is held under vacuum (as it is in the Dosaprep) then it will not be able to reaerate before it is placed in the dissolution vessel. Other common laboratory methods of degassing such as sonication or membrane degassing are not practical for degassing the large volumes required for dissolution testing and are more suited for HPLC.

Steel Degassing

Aluminium Degassing
In the case of aluminium alloys, a degassing step is usually necessary to reduce the amount of hydrogen dissolved in the liquid metal. If the hydrogen concentration in the melt is too high, the resulting casting will be porous as the hydrogen comes out of solution as the aluminium cools and solidifies. Porosity often seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the metal. An efficient way of removing hydrogen from the melt is to bubble argon or nitrogen through the melt. To do that, several different types of equipment are used by foundries. When the bubbles go up in the melt, they catch the dissolved hydrogen and bring it to the top surface. There are various types of equipment which measure the amount of hydrogen present in it. Alternatively, the density of the aluminium sample is calculated to check amount of hydrogen dissolved in it. In cases where porosity still remains present after the degassing process, porosity sealing can be accomplished through a process called metal impregnating.