Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Chapter 2
Learning Objectives
1.
2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
Distinguish between the concepts of social perception and social identity. Explain how the attribution process works and describe the various sources of bias in social perception. Understand how the process of social perception operates in the context of performance appraisals, employment interviews, and the cultivation of corporate images. Define learning and describe the two types most applicable to OB: operant conditioning and observational learning. Describe how principles of learning are involved in organizational training and innovative reward systems. Compare the way organizations use reward in organizational behavior management programs, how they can use punishment most effectively when administering discipline, and how they can manage knowledge effectively.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
Social Perception
Social
Perception: The process of combining, integrating, and interpreting information about others to gain an accurate understanding of them. Attribution: The process through which individuals attempt to determine the causes behind others behavior.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
Correspondent Inferences
Judgments about peoples dispositions, traits, and characteristics, that correspond to what we have observed of their actions.
Causal Attribution
Causes of Behavior:
Internal: Explanations based on actions for which the individual is responsible. External: Explanations based on situations over which the individual has no control.
Kelleys Theory of Causal Attribution: The approach suggesting that people will believe others actions to be caused by internal or external factors based on three types of information: consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
Consensus: Information regarding the extent to which other people behave in the same manner as the person being judged. Consistency: Information regarding the extent to which the person being judged acts the same way at other times. Distinctiveness: Information regarding the extent to which a person behaves in the same manner in other contexts.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
Stereotypes
Beliefs that all members of specific groups share similar traits and are prone to behave the same way.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
10
Perceptual Biases
Predispositions that people have to misperceive others in various ways. Types include
Fundamental attribution error Halo effect Similar-to-me effect First impression error Selective perception
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
11
12
Halo Effect
The tendency for our overall impressions of others to affect objective evaluations of their specific traits; perceiving high correlations between characteristics that may be unrelated.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
13
Similar-to-Me Effect
The tendency for people to perceive in a positive light others who are believed to be similar to themselves in any of several different ways.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
14
Selective Perception
The tendency to focus on some aspects of the environment while ignoring others.
15
16
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The tendency for someones expectations about another to cause that person to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations. Pygmalion Effect: A positive instance of the selffulfilling prophecy, in which people holding high expectations of another tend to improve that individuals performance. Golem Effect: A negative instance of the selffulfilling prophecy, in which people holding low expectations of another tend to lower that individuals performance.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
17
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
18
Overcoming Biases
Do not overlook the external cases of others behaviors. Identify your stereotypes. Evaluate people based on objective factors. Avoid making rash judgments.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
19
Organizational Applications
Performance Appraisal: The process of evaluating employees on various workrelated dimensions.
An inherently biased process
Impresssion Management: Efforts by individuals (esp. in employment interviews) to improve how they appear to others. Corporate Image: The impressions that people have of an organization.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
20
21
Corporate Image
22
Learning Concepts
Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of experience. Operant Conditioning: The form of learning in which people associate the consequences of their actions with the actions themselves.
Behaviors with positive consequences are acquired. Behaviors with negative consequences tend to be eliminated.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
23
24
Reinforcement Concepts
Positive
Reinforcement: The process by which people learn to perform behaviors that lead to the presentation of desired outcomes. Negative Reinforcement: The process by which people learn to perform acts that lead to the removal of undesired events.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
25
26
Contingencies of Reinforcement
27
Schedules of Reinforcement
Rules governing the timing and frequency of the administration of reinforcement. Continuous Reinforcement: A schedule of reinforcement in which all desired behaviors are reinforced. Partial Reinforcement: A schedule of reinforcement in which only some desired behaviors are reinforced.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
28
29
30
31
32
Observational Learning
The form of learning in which people acquire new behaviors by systematically observing the rewards and punishments given to others.
33
34
Applications of Learning
Training Innovative
Reward
35
Training
The process of systematically teaching employees to acquire and improve jobrelated skills and knowledge. Types of training:
Classroom training Apprenticeship programs Cross-cultural training Executive training programs Corporate universities E-training
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
36
Participation: Active involvement in the process of learning; more active participation leads to more effective learning. Repetition: The process of repeatedly performing a task so that it may be learned. Transfer of Training: The degree to which the skills learned during training sessions may be applied to performance on ones job. Feedback: Knowledge of the results of ones behavior.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
37
38
39
Discipline
The process of systematically administering punishment.
Progressive Discipline: The practice of gradually increasing the severity of punishments for employees who exhibit unacceptable job behavior.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
40
41
Deliver punishment immediately after the undesirable response occurs. Give moderate levels of punishment nothing too high or too low. Punish the undesirable behavior, not the person. Use punishment consistently across occasions. Punish everyone equally for the same infraction. Clearly communicate the reasons for the punishment given. Do not follow punishment with noncontingent rewards.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
42
Knowledge Management
The process of gathering, organizing, and sharing a companys information and knowledge assets. Intellectual Capital: Areas of expertise represented by the employees within a company. Knowledge Managers: Individuals who are responsible for organizing the wealth of corporate knowledge represented by its people and ensuring that this information gets used effectively.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
43
Explain the companys knowledge management efforts to everyone from board member to low-level employee.
Secure funding for knowledge management projects. Promote job flexibility within the company, making it possible for people with good ideas to execute them readily. Develop, maintain, and promote use of an online database of ideas that is readily accessible to all. Discourage keeping information and ideas within a single division; encouraging all ideas, research findings, and experiences to be shared with others.
Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall
44