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 Pathogens Microorganisms that cause diseases

Commensals Those that live in harmony with the host without causing any damage to it

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INFECTION

Lodging and multiplication of pathogens in or on tissues of a host

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Primary infection

Infection that develops in an otherwise healthy host

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Re - infection

Infection by the same organism again in the same host

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Secondary infection

Infection in the host affected by primary infection by a new organism

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Disease-causing organisms
Organisms that cause disease are called pathogens. What are the four major types of pathogen?

bacteria

fungi

protozoa

virus
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How do pathogens cause illness?

Pathogens cause illness in three main ways:

Toxins Toxins are harmful substances produced by the pathogen that poison the bodys tissue and enzymes.
Reproduction A rise in the number of pathogens can damage a cell, even causing it to burst. Some pathogens hijack resources that the cell needs to survive.

Immune response Sites of infection often become swollen, sore and hot as a result of increased blood flow.
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How are pathogens spread?

Different pathogens have different transmission routes:

insect bites

food and water

airborne droplets

direct contact
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indirect contact
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Immunity to Infection

Fighting infection
How does the body fight infection?

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Immunity to Infection
Immunity is the acquired ability to defend against infection by disease-causing organisms.

Overview of your immune system

First line of defense: Physical barriers that viruses, bacteria must cross
skin covers ~2 m2 Mucous membranes that line digestive, respiratory, reproductive tracts cover ~400 m2

Second line of defense: Innate immune system (germline-encoded receptors -- no adaptation to specific pathogens)
Macrophages (Greek for big eater), neutrophils, natural killer (NK) cells

Third line of defense (vertebrates only): Adaptive immune system (adapts to defend against specific pathogens using variable receptors)
B cells make antibodies that vary -- can make an antibody specific for any new antigen T cells mediate cellular responses using variable receptors (T cell receptors; TCRs)

First line of defence

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Invasion!
A pathogen enters your body through direct or indirect contact. What happens next?

The pathogen begins to reproduce and make toxins that destroy the bodys cells and make you feel unwell. Painkillers can relieve the symptoms of an infection but do not kill the pathogen. Your immune system begins to mount an attack.
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Second line of defence Innate immunity Macrophages

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Second line of defence - Natural killer (NK) cells

Can kill tumor cells, virus-infected cells, bacteria, parasites, fungi in tissues

Identify targets based on missing self

Two types of NK receptors: inhibitory and activating If inhibitory receptor recognizes a self protein (a class I MHC molecule) on a target cell, the NK cell is turned OFF even if activating receptor binds a ligand on the same target cell If activating receptor binds a ligand, but inhibitory receptor does not (target cell has down-regulated class I MHC proteins), NK cells kill Many virally-infected cells and tumor cells down-regulate expression of class I MHC molecules (NK cells important for preventing cancers)

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Resisting attack
TB bacteria have a number of adaptations that enable them to resist phagocytosis: They produce chemicals that prevent macrophages from being attracted to sites of infection. They have a waxy cell wall that resists enzyme attack and secretes chemicals that block lysosomes from fusing with phagosomes.

How does the immune system deal with these bacteria?

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Third line of defence - Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell found in the blood or lymph nodes and made by bone marrow. There are several types of lymphocyte, including: T-lymphocytes recognise antigens on pathogens and either attack them directly or co-ordinate the activity of other cells of the immune system.

B-lymphocytes recognise antigens and produce special chemicals called antibodies.

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B lymphocytes
Antibodies are special Y-shaped proteins produced by B-lymphocytes in response to antigens.

Antibodies work by binding to antigens on pathogens, labelling them and causing them to clump together. The pathogen can then be destroyed by: phagocytosis by macrophages T-lymphocytes the antibodies themselves.
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Antibodies
Each different type of antigen causes a different type of antibody to be produced. An antibody can only bind to the antigen that caused it to be produced.

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Delayed response
The B-lymphocyte that produces the correct antibody for the antigen begins dividing to produce many more antibodyproducing cells. It takes a few days to produce enough antibodies to destroy the pathogen. This means there is delay between infection and the person beginning to feel better.

Once a pathogen has been destroyed, a few memory cells remain. These recognize the pathogen if it re-infects, and make the immune response much quicker and more effective. This is called active immunity.
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Antibody levels during infection

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T cells
How does the body deal with pathogens that are inside cells?

Viruses and bacteria that infect cells leave antigens on the surface of the cell they infect. T-cell infected cell

antigen

receptor

T-lymphocytes recognize these antigens by receptors on their surface and destroy the whole infected cell.
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Types of Immunity

Active immunity

Passive immunity

Naturally acquired

Naturally acquired

Artificially acquired Artificially acquired

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Types of Immunity

Natural immunity is the result of a bodys previous encounter with an organism.

Artificial immunity results from the injection of a vaccine or an antibody. Vaccines stimulate active immunity whereas injection antibody or antiserum is an example of passive immunity.

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Types of Immunity

Active immunity is when the immune system encounters and antigen and is primed to recognise it and destroy it quickly the next time it is encountered. This is active immunity because the bodys immune system prepares itself for future challenges.
Passive immunity is short-term and involves the transfer of immunity from one individual to another via antibody-rich serum. This may be artificial as is the case with anti-venom or natural, as in antibodies crossing the placenta to protect the developing foetus.

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Immunity
Active immunity Production of a persons own antibodies. Long lasting Natural Active Artificial Active When pathogen Vaccination usually enters body in the contains a safe antigen normal way, we from the pathogen. make antibodies Person makes antibodies without becoming ill Passive immunity An individual is given antibodies by another Short-term resistance (weeks- 6months)

Natural Passive Baby in utero (placenta) Breast-fed babies

Artificial Passive Gamma globulin injection Extremely fast, but short lived (e.g. snake venom)

Edward Jenner
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Passive immunity
Many snakes produce a powerful nerve toxin that can be lethal to humans. People bitten by poisonous snakes can be treated with antivenin. Antivenin contains antibodies to give instant immunity. It is produced by injecting horses with small, non-lethal doses of venom. Over time, the horses produce antibodies, which are extracted and processed. Because the person didnt make the antibodies themselves, this is called passive immunity.
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What are vaccines?

Vaccines contain a small amount of dead or weakened pathogen particles. A vaccine stimulates the production of antibodies and memory cells against the target pathogen, without making the person ill. If a vaccinated person is later infected by the same pathogen, their immune system can destroy it very quickly. Parents of two-year-old children are offered a combined measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine to protect their child. What has happened to MMR vaccination rates recently?
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Measles, mumps and rubella

MMR vaccination rates used to be high, but fell following a media scare story.

The media reported on controversial research speculating that MMR could cause autism, a behavioural disorder causing learning and communication difficulties.

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Glossary (1/2) antibiotic A drug that can destroy or prevent the growth
of bacteria.

antibody A Y-shaped protein produced by the body that

binds to antigens.

antigen A substance on pathogens that stimulates the

production of antibodies.

B-lymphocyte A white blood cell that produces

antibodies.

immunization The process of protecting against

infection by using a vaccine.

immune response The bodys defence against foreign

material such as pathogens.
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Glossary (2/2)

immunity The ability to fight infection by pathogens. It

can be active or passive.

pathogen A disease-causing micro-organism.

phagocytosis The process where a type of white blood

cell called a macrophage ingests and destroys a pathogen.

T-lymphocyte A type of white blood cell that recognises

and destroys pathogens, and co-ordinates the immune response.

tuberculosis A serious bacterial disease that mainly

affects the respiratory system.

vaccine A small amount of dead or weakened pathogen

that stimulates antibody production.
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Multiple-choice quiz

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 Please read after going back Things here are highly volatile

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