Chapter 3

Cell Structures and Their Functions

Dividing Cells
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cell Organization
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life Each cell is a highly organized unit (Table 3.1)
Plasma membrane: forms the outer boundary of the cell Cellular organelles: each performs specific functions Nucleus: contains the cells genetic material and directs cell activities Cytoplasm: the material between the plasma membrane and nucleus

Fig. 3.1

Cell Functions
1. Metabolize and release energy
chemical reactions that occur within cells release of energy in the form of heat helps maintain body temperature cells differ from each other because they synthesize different kinds of molecules achieved by chemical and electrical signaling mitosis meiosis

2. Synthesize molecules 3. Provide a means of communication 4. Reproduction and Inheritance

Plasma Membrane
Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
encloses cell supports the cell contents a selective barrier that regulates what goes into and out of the cell plays a role in communication between cells

Separates intracellular substances from extracellular substances

intracellular: inside cells extracellular (intercellular): between cells

Fluid Mosaic Model

Lipid bilayer
double layer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed proteins

Bilayer consists mainly of phospholipids and cholesterol (20%)

Phospholipids have hydrophobic (nonpolar tails) and hydrophilic (polar heads) bipoles Cholesterol gives the membrane added strength and flexibility

Fig. 3.2

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Protein molecules float among the phospholipid molecules Functions
marker molecules attachment proteins (cadherins and integrins) transport proteins receptor proteins enzymes

Figure 3.4.2

Movement Through the Plasma Membrane

Ions and molecules move across plasma membranes by

diffusion osmosis mediated transport vesicular transport

Diffusion
The movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration within a solvent
at equilibrium, there is a uniform distribution of molecules

Terminology
Solution: any mixture of liquids, gases, or solids in which the substances are uniformly distributed with no clear boundary between the substances A solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution Concentration gradient: the concentration difference between two points divided by the distance between those two points

Diffusion
1. Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through the plasma membrane 2. Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do not diffuse through the plasma membrane 3. Some specific non-lipidsoluble molecules and ions pass through membrane channels or other transport proteins

Diffusion
1. Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through the plasma membrane 2. Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do not diffuse through the plasma membrane 3. Some specific non-lipidsoluble molecules and ions pass through membrane channels or other transport proteins

Diffusion
1. Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through the plasma membrane 2. Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do not diffuse through the plasma membrane 3. Some specific non-lipidsoluble molecules and ions pass through membrane channels or other transport proteins

Diffusion
1. Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through the plasma membrane 2. Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do not diffuse through the plasma membrane 3. Some specific non-lipidsoluble molecules and ions pass through membrane channels or other transport proteins

Diffusion

Osmosis
The diffusion of a solvent (water) across a selectively permeable membrane via diffusion.
through a specific channel protein (aquaporin) or through the lipid bilayer

Terminology
Osmotic pressure: the force required to prevent the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane Isosmotic solutions: have the same concentration of solute particles as a reference solution Hyperosmotic solutions: have a greater concentration of solute particles than a reference solution Hyposmotic solutions: have a lesser concentration of solute particles than a reference solution

Osmosis

Fig. 3.5

Osmotic Concentration of Solutions

a) A hypotonic solution with a low solute concentration results in swelling of the RBC placed into the solution. Water enters the cell by osmosis, and the RBC lyses (bursts).

b) An isotonic solution with a concentration of solutes equal to that inside the cells results in a normal shaped RBC. Water moves into and out of the cell at the same rate, but there is no net water movement.

c) A hypertonic solution, with a high solute concentration, causes shrinkage (crenation) of the RBC as water moves by osmosis out of the cell and into the hypertonic solution.

Osmotic Concentration of Solutions

a) A hypotonic solution with a low solute concentration results in swelling of the RBC placed into the solution. Water enters the cell by osmosis, and the RBC lyses (bursts).

b) An isotonic solution with a concentration of solutes equal to that inside the cells results in a normal shaped RBC. Water moves into and out of the cell at the same rate, but there is no net water movement.

c) A hypertonic solution, with a high solute concentration, causes shrinkage (crenation) of the RBC as water moves by osmosis out of the cell and into the hypertonic solution.

Osmotic Concentration of Solutions

a) A hypotonic solution with a low solute concentration results in swelling of the RBC placed into the solution. Water enters the cell by osmosis, and the RBC lyses (bursts).

b) An isotonic solution with a concentration of solutes equal to that inside the cells results in a normal shaped RBC. Water moves into and out of the cell at the same rate, but there is no net water movement.

c) A hypertonic solution, with a high solute concentration, causes shrinkage (crenation) of the RBC as water moves by osmosis out of the cell and into the hypertonic solution.

Osmotic Concentration of Solutions

a) A hypotoinic solution with a low solute concentration results in swelling of the RBC placed into the solution. Water enters the cell by osmosis, and the RBC lyses (bursts).

b) An isotonic solution with a concentration of solutes equal to that inside the cells results in a normal shaped RBC. Water moves into and out of the cell at the same rate, but there is no net water movement.

c) A hypertonic solution, with a high solute concentration, causes shrinkage (crenation) of the RBC as water moves by osmosis out of the cell and into the hypertonic solution.

Mediated Transport
Process by which transport proteins mediate, or assist in, the movement of ions and molecules across the plasma membrane Characteristics
1. Specificity: selectiveness 2. Competition: similar molecules or ions compete for a transport protein 3. Saturation: rate of transport cannot increase because all transport proteins are in use

Mediated Transport
Types of transport proteins
1. Channel proteins: form membrane channels (ion channels) 2. Carrier proteins: bind to ions or molecules and transport them
Uniport (facilitated diffusion) moves an ion or molecule down its concentration gradient Symport moves two or more ions or molecules in the same direction Antiport moves two or more ions or molecules in opposite directions

3. ATP-powered pumps: move ions or molecules against their concentration gradient using the energy from ATP
Secondary active transport uses the energy of one substance moving down its concentration gradient to move another substance across the plasma membrane

Facilitated Diffusion

Fig. 3.7

Sodium-Potassium Pump
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) bind to the Na+-K+ pump, which is an ATP-powered pump. 2. The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy. That energy is used to power a shape change in the Na+-K+ pump. Phosphate remains bound to the Na+-K+-ATP binding site. 3. The Na+-K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are transported across the membrane. 4. The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+-K+ pump. 5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+-K+ pump. 6. The phosphate is released from the Na+-K+ pump binding site. 7. The Na+-K+ pump resumes its original shape, transporting K+ across the membrane, and the K+ diffuse away from the pump. The Na+-K+ pump can again bind to Na+ and ATP.

Sodium-Potassium Pump
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) bind to the Na+-K+ pump, which is an ATP-powered pump. 2. The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy. That energy is used to power a shape change in the Na+-K+ pump. Phosphate remains bound to the Na+-K+-ATP binding site. 3. The Na+-K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are transported across the membrane. 4. The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+-K+ pump. 5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+-K+ pump. 6. The phosphate is released from the Na+-K+ pump binding site. 7. The Na+-K+ pump resumes its original shape, transporting K+ across the membrane, and the K+ diffuses away from the pump. The Na+-K+ pump can again bind to Na+ and ATP.

Sodium-Potassium Pump
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) bind to the Na+-K+ pump, which is an ATP-powered pump. 2. The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy. That energy is used to power a shape change in the Na+-K+ pump. Phosphate remains bound to the Na+-K+-ATP binding site. 3. The Na+-K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are transported across the membrane. 4. The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+-K+ pump. 5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+-K+ pump. 6. The phosphate is released from the Na+-K+ pump binding site. 7. The Na+-K+ pump resumes its original shape, transporting K+ across the membrane, and the K+ diffuses away from the pump. The Na+-K+ pump can again bind to Na+ and ATP.

Sodium-Potassium Pump
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) bind to the Na+-K+ pump, which is an ATP-powered pump. 2. The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy. That energy is used to power a shape change in the Na+-K+ pump. Phosphate remains bound to the Na+-K+-ATP binding site. 3. The Na+-K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are transported across the membrane. 4. The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+-K+ pump. 5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+-K+ pump. 6. The phosphate is released from the Na+-K+ pump binding site. 7. The Na+-K+ pump resumes its original shape, transporting K+ across the membrane, and the K+ diffuses away from the pump. The Na+-K+ pump can again bind to Na+ and ATP.

Sodium-Potassium Pump
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) bind to the Na+-K+ pump, which is an ATP-powered pump. 2. The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy. That energy is used to power a shape change in the Na+-K+ pump. Phosphate remains bound to the Na+-K+-ATP binding site. 3. The Na+-K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are transported across the membrane. 4. The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+-K+ pump. 5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+-K+ pump. 6. The phosphate is released from the Na+-K+ pump binding site. 7. The Na+-K+ pump resumes its original shape, transporting K+ across the membrane, and the K+ diffuses away from the pump. The Na+-K+ pump can again bind to Na+ and ATP.

Secondary Active Transport

Symport of Na+ and Glucose
1. A Na+-K+ pump (ATP-powered pump) maintains a concentration of Na+ that is higher outside the cell than inside. 2. Sodium ions move back into the cell through a carrier protein (symporter) that also moves glucose. The concentration gradient for Na+ provides energy required to move glucose against its concentration gradient.

Fig. 3.9

Vesicular Transport
Transport of large particles and macromolecules across plasma membranes
Endocytosis: the movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle
Phagocytosis: the movement of solid material into cells Pinocytosis: the uptake of small droplets of liquids and the materials in them Receptor-mediated endocytosis: involves plasma membrane receptors attaching to molecules that are then taken into the cell

Exocytosis: the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation

Phagocytosis

Fig. 3.10

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
1. Receptors in the plasma membrane bind to molecules to be taken into the cell 2. The receptors and the bond molecules are taken into the cell as a vesicle begins to form

3. The vesicle fuses and separates from the plasma membrane

Fig. 3.11

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
1. Receptors in the plasma membrane bind to molecules to be taken into the cell 2. The receptors and the bond molecules are taken into the cell as a vesicle begins to form

3. The vesicle fuses and separates from the plasma membrane

Fig. 3.11

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
1. Receptors in the plasma membrane bind to molecules to be taken into the cell 2. The receptors and the bond molecules are taken into the cell as a vesicle begins to form

3. The vesicle fuses and separates from the plasma membrane

Fig. 3.11

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
1. Receptors in the plasma membrane bind to molecules to be taken into the cell 2. The receptors and the bond molecules are taken into the cell as a vesicle begins to form

3. The vesicle fuses and separates from the plasma membrane

Fig. 3.11

Exocytosis
1. A secretory vesicle moves toward the plasma membrane 2. The membrane of the secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane

3. The secretory vesicles contents are released into the extracellular fluid
Fig. 3.12

Exocytosis
1. A secretory vesicle moves toward the plasma membrane 2. The membrane of the secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane

3. The secretory vesicles contents are released into the extracellular fluid
Fig. 3.12

Exocytosis
1. A secretory vesicle moves toward the plasma membrane 2. The membrane of the secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane

3. The secretory vesicles contents are released into the extracellular fluid
Fig. 3.12

Exocytosis
1. A secretory vesicle moves toward the plasma membrane 2. The membrane of the secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane

3. The secretory vesicles contents are released into the extracellular fluid
Fig. 3.12

Cytoplasm
The material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
Half cytosol
Consists of a fluid part (the site of chemical reactions), the cytoskeleton, and cytoplasmic inclusions
The cytoskeleton supports the cell and enables cell movements Microtubules provide support, aid in cell division, and are components of organelles Actin filaments support the plasma membrane and define the shape of the cell Intermediate filaments provide mechanical support to teh cell

Half organelles
Cytoplasmic Inclusions are aggregates of chemicals either produced by the cell or taken in by the cell (lipids, glycogen, hemoglobin, melanin)

Cytoskeleton

Fig. 3.13

Cytoplasmic Organelles
Specialized subcellular structures with specific functions Membranous
Mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus

Nonmembranous
Centrioles and ribosomes

Nucleus
The nuclear envelope consists of two separate membranes with nuclear pores
Encloses jellylike nucleoplasm, which contains essential solutes

DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus

DNA is the hereditary material of the cell and controls the activities of the cell Contains the genetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized Between cell divisions DNA is organized as chromatin During cell division chromatin condenses to form chromosomes consisting of two chromatids connected by a centromere

Nucleus

Fig. 3.14

Chromosome Structure
Fig. 3.15

Nucleoli and Ribosomes

Nucleoli: dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus
Consist of RNA and proteins Produces ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) Site of ribosomal subunit assembly

Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis

Free ribosomes are not attached to any organelles
synthesize proteins used inside the cell

Attached ribosomes are part of a network of membranes called the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
produce proteins that are secreted from the cell

Production of Ribosomes

Fig. 3.16

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extend from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm Two varieties: rough ER and smooth ER
Rough ER (RER)
Studded with ribosomes Major site of protein synthesis

Smooth ER (SER)
Does not have ribosomes attached Major site of lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
Catalyzes the following reactions in various organs of the body Liver: lipid and cholesterol metabolism, breakdown of glycogen and along with the kidneys, detoxifiy drugs Testes: synthesis of steroid-based hormones Intestinal cells: absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats Skeletal and cardiac muscle: storage and release of calcium

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Fig. 3.17

Golgi Apparatus
Series of closely packed membranous sacs that collect, package, and distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER
Secretory vesicles: small, membrane-bound sacs that transport material from the golgi apparatus to the exterior of the cell

Fig. 3.18

Function of the Golgi Apparatus

1. 2. 3. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the membrane of the ER This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into its cisterna The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are used within the cell Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma membrane

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

Fig. 3.19

Function of the Golgi Apparatus

1. 2. 3. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the membrane of the ER This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into its cisterna The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are used within the cell Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma membrane

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

Fig. 3.19

Function of the Golgi Apparatus

1. 2. 3. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the membrane of the ER This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into its cisterna The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are used within the cell Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma membrane

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

Fig. 3.19

Function of the Golgi Apparatus

1. 2. 3. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the membrane of the ER This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into its cisterna The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are used within the cell Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma membrane

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

Fig. 3.19

Function of the Golgi Apparatus

1. 2. 3. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the membrane of the ER This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into its cisterna The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are used within the cell Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma membrane

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

Fig. 3.19

Function of the Golgi Apparatus

1. 2. 3. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the membrane of the ER This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into its cisterna The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are used within the cell Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma membrane

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

Fig. 3.19

Function of the Golgi Apparatus

1. 2. 3. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the membrane of the ER This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into its cisterna The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are used within the cell Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma membrane

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

Fig. 3.19

Function of the Golgi Apparatus

1. 2. 3. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the membrane of the ER This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into its cisterna The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are used within the cell Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma membrane

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

Fig. 3.19

Function of the Golgi Apparatus

1. 2. 3. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the membrane of the ER This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into its cisterna The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are used within the cell Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma membrane

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

Fig. 3.19

Lysosomes
Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes
Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins Degrade nonfunctional organelles Breakdown glycogen and release thyroid hormone Breakdown non-useful tissue Breakdown bone to release Ca2+ Secretory lysosomes are found in white blood cells, immune cells, and melanocytes

Action of Lysosomes
1. 2. A vesicle forms around material outside the cell The vesicle is pinched off from the plasma membrane and becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus The lysosome fuses with Fig. 3.20 the vesicle The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material in vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material

3.

4.
5.

Action of Lysosomes
1. 2. A vesicle forms around material outside the cell The vesicle is pinched off from the plasma membrane and becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus The lysosome fuses with Fig. 3.20 the vesicle The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material in vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material

3.

4.
5.

Action of Lysosomes
1. 2. A vesicle forms around material outside the cell The vesicle is pinched off from the plasma membrane and becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus The lysosome fuses with Fig. 3.20 the vesicle The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material in vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material

3.

4.
5.

Action of Lysosomes
1. 2. A vesicle forms around material outside the cell The vesicle is pinched off from the plasma membrane and becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus The lysosome fuses with Fig. 3.20 the vesicle The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material in vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material

3.

4.
5.

Action of Lysosomes
1. 2. A vesicle forms around material outside the cell The vesicle is pinched off from the plasma membrane and becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus The lysosome fuses with Fig. 3.20 the vesicle The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material in vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material

3.

4.
5.

Action of Lysosomes
1. 2. A vesicle forms around material outside the cell The vesicle is pinched off from the plasma membrane and becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus The lysosome fuses with Fig. 3.20 the vesicle The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material in vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material

3.

4.
5.

Peroxisomes
Membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases
Breakdown fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide Detoxify harmful or toxic substances Neutralize dangerous free radicals
Free radicals: highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons (i.e., O2)

Mitochondria
The major sites of the production of ATP (the major energy source for cells) via aerobic cellular respiration Have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane that is infolded to produce cristae Contain their own DNA, can produce some of their own proteins, and can replicate independently of the cell

Fig. 3.21

Centrioles and Spindle Fibers

Centrioles: cylindrical organelles located in the centrosome
Pinwheel array of nine triplets of microtubules Centrosome: a specialized zone of the cytoplasm
the site of microtubule formation

Microtubules called spindle fibers extend out in all directions from the centrosome
Spindle fibers are involved in the separation of chromosomes during cell division

Form the bases of cilia and flagella

Fig. 3.22

Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli

Cilia move substances over the surface of cells Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel sperm cells Microvilli increase the surface area of cell and aid in absorption and secretion

Protein Synthesis
DNA serves as master blueprint for protein synthesis DNA controls enzyme production and cell activity is regulated by enzymes (Proteins) Genes are segments of DNA carrying instructions for a polypeptide chain Triplets of nucleotide bases form the genetic library Each triplet specifies coding for an amino acid

Protein Synthesis
Two step process
Transcription
cell makes a copy of the gene necessary to make a particular protein: messenger RNA (mRNA) mRNA then travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes where the information is translated into a protein

Translation
requires both mRNA and transfer RNA (tRNA) tRNA brings the amino acids necessary to synthesize the protein to the ribosome

Overview of Protein Synthesis

1. DNA contains the information necessary to produce proteins 2. Transcription of one DNA strand results in mRNA, which is a complementary copy of the information in the DNA strand needed to make a protein 3. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome 4. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are carried to the ribosome by tRNAs 5. In the process of translation, the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the number, kinds, and arrangement of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
Fig. 3.23

Overview of Protein Synthesis

1. DNA contains the information necessary to produce proteins 2. Transcription of one DNA strand results in mRNA, which is a complementary copy of the information in the DNA strand needed to make a protein 3. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome 4. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are carried to the ribosome by tRNAs 5. In the process of translation, the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the number, kinds, and arrangement of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
Fig. 3.23

Overview of Protein Synthesis

1. DNA contains the information necessary to produce proteins 2. Transcription of one DNA strand results in mRNA, which is a complementary copy of the information in the DNA strand needed to make a protein 3. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome 4. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are carried to the ribosome by tRNAs 5. In the process of translation, the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the number, kinds, and arrangement of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
Fig. 3.23

Overview of Protein Synthesis

1. DNA contains the information necessary to produce proteins 2. Transcription of one DNA strand results in mRNA, which is a complementary copy of the information in the DNA strand needed to make a protein 3. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome 4. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are carried to the ribosome by tRNAs 5. In the process of translation, the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the number, kinds, and arrangement of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
Fig. 3.23

Overview of Protein Synthesis

1. DNA contains the information necessary to produce proteins 2. Transcription of one DNA strand results in mRNA, which is a complementary copy of the information in the DNA strand needed to make a protein 3. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome 4. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are carried to the ribosome by tRNAs 5. In the process of translation, the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the number, kinds, and arrangement of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
Fig. 3.23

Transcription
Synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA based on the nucleotide sequence in DNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) bound to amino acids base pair with the codons of mRNA at the ribosome to begin the process of protein synthesis Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) a structural component of ribosomes

Transcription
1. The strands of the DNA molecule separate from each other. One DNA strand serves as a template for mRNA synthesis 2. Nucleotides that will form mRNA pair with DNA nucleotides according to the base-pair combinations shown in the key at the top of the figure. Thus, the sequence of nucleotides in the template DNA strand (purple) determines the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA (grey). RNA polymerase (the enzyme is not shown) joins the nucleotides of mRNA together 3. As nucleotides are added, an mRNA molecule is formed

Fig. 3.24

Transcription: RNA Polymerase

An enzyme that oversees the synthesis of RNA Unwinds the DNA template Adds complementary ribonucleoside triphosphates on the DNA template Joins these RNA nucleotides together Encodes a termination signal to stop transcription

Transcription
Posttranscriptional processing modifies mRNA before it leaves the nucleus by removing introns (non-coding) and then splicing exons (coding) together with enzymes called spliceosomes
Functional mRNA consists only of exons

Alternative splicing produces different combination of exons, allowing one gene to produce more than one type of protein

Translation
Synthesis of proteins in response to the codons of mRNA
Codon: a set of 3 nucleotides that codes for 1 amino acid during translation Anticodon: part of tRNA and consists of three nucleotides and is complementary to a particular codon of mRNA

mRNA moves through the nuclear pores to ribosomes tRNA, which carries amino acids, interacts at the ribosome with mRNA. The anticodons of tRNA bind to the codons of mRNA, and the amino acids are joined to form a protein

Translation
1. To start protein synthesis, a ribosome binds to mRNA. The ribosome has two binding sites for tRNA with its amino acid. Note that the first codon to associate with a tRNA is AUG, the start codon, which codes for methionine. The codon of mRNA and the anitcodon of tRNA are aligned and joined. The other tRNA binding site is open

Fig. 3.25

Translation
1. To start protein synthesis, a ribosome binds to mRNA. The ribosome has two binding sites for tRNA with its amino acid. Note that the first codon to associate with a tRNA is AUG, the start codon, which codes for methionine. The codon of mRNA and the anitcodon of tRNA are aligned and joined. The other tRNA binding site is open 2. By occupying the open tRNA binding site, the next tRNA is properly aligned with mRNA and with the other tRNA

Fig. 3.25

Translation
1. To start protein synthesis, a ribosome binds to mRNA. The ribosome has two binding sites for tRNA with its amino acid. Note that the first codon to associate with a tRNA is AUG, the start codon, which codes for methionine. The codon of mRNA and the anitcodon of tRNA are aligned and joined. The other tRNA binding site is open By occupying the open tRNA binding site, the next tRNA is properly aligned with mRNA and with the other tRNA An enzyme within the ribosome catalyzes a synthesis reaction to form a peptide bond between the amino acids. Note that the amino acids are now associated with only one of the tRNAs

2. 3.

Fig. 3.25

Translation
3. An enzyme within the ribosome catalyzes a synthesis reaction to form a peptide bond between the amino acids. Note that the amino acids are now associated with only one of the tRNAs 4. The ribosome shifts position by three nucleotides. The tRNA without the amino acid is released from the ribosome, and the tRNA with the amino acids takes its position. A tRNA binding site is left open by the shift. Additional amino acids can be added by repeating steps 2 through 4

Fig. 3.25

Translation
3. An enzyme within the ribosome catalyzes a synthesis reaction to form a peptide bond between the amino acids. Note that the amino acids are now associated with only one of the tRNAs 4. The ribosome shifts position by three nucleotides. The tRNA without the amino acid is released from the ribosome, and the tRNA with the amino acids takes its position. A tRNA binding site is left open by the shift. Additional amino acids can be added by repeating steps 2 through 4 5. Eventually a stop codon in the mRNA, such as UAA, ends the process of translation. At this point, the mRNA and polypeptide chain are released from the ribosome. 6. Multiple ribosomes attach to a single mRNA to form a polyribosome. As the ribosomes move down the mRNA, proteins attached to the ribosomes lengthen and eventually detach from the mRNA

Fig. 3.25

Translation
1. To start protein synthesis, a ribosome binds to mRNA. The ribosome has two binding sites for tRNA with its amino acid. Note that the first codon to associate with a tRNA is AUG, the start codon, which codes for methionine. The codon of mRNA and the anitcodon of tRNA are aligned and joined. The other tRNA binding site is open 2. By occupying the open tRNA binding site, the next tRNA is properly aligned with mRNA and with the other tRNA 3. An enzyme within the ribosome catalyzes a synthesis reaction to form a peptide bond between the amino acids. Note that the amino acids are now associated with only one of the tRNAs 4. The ribosome shifts position by three nucleotides. The tRNA without the amino acid is released from the ribosome, and the tRNA with the amino acids takes its position. A tRNA binding site is left open by the shift. Additional amino acids can be added by repeating steps 2 through 4 5. Eventually a stop codon in the mRNA, such as UAA, ends the process of translation. At this point, the mRNA and polypeptide chain are released from the ribosome. 6. Multiple ribosomes attach to a single mRNA to form a polyribosome. As the ribosomes move down the mRNA, proteins attached to the ribosomes lengthen and eventually detach from the mRNA

Fig. 3.25

Information Transfer from DNA to RNA

DNA triplets are transcribed into mRNA codons by RNA polymerase Codons base pair with tRNA anticodons at the ribosomes Amino acids are peptide bonded at the ribosomes to form polypeptide chains Start and stop codons are used in initiating and ending translation

Cell Division
Cell division that occurs by mitosis produces new cells for growth and tissue repair Cell division that occurs by meiosis produces gametes (sex cells).
Sperm cells in males Oocytes (egg cells) in females

Cell Division
Chromosomes
Somatic cells have a diploid number of chromosomes Gametes have a haploid number In humans, the diploid number is 46 (23 pairs) and the haploid number is 23
Twenty-two pairs of autosomal chromosomes One pair of sex chromosomes
Females XX Males XY

DNA replicates during interphase, the time between cell division

Replication of DNA
1. The strands of the DNA molecule separate from each other 2. Each old strand (dark purple) functions as a template on which a new, complementary strand (light purple) is formed. The base-pairing relationship between nucleotides determines the sequence of nucleotides in the newly formed strands 3. Two identical DNA molecules are produced
Fig. 3.26

Replication of a Chromosome
1. The DNA of a chromosome is dispersed as chromatin 2. The DNA molecule unwinds and each strand of the molecule is replicated 3. During mitosis the chromatin from each replicated DNA strand condenses to form a chromatid. The chromatids are joined at the centromere to form a single chromosome 4. The chromatids separate to form two new, identical chromosomes. The chromosomes will unwind to form chromatin in the nuclei of the two daughter cells
Fig. 3.26

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is found as thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA replication occurs during interphase. Organelles, other than the nucleus, duplicate during interphase In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the nucleolus and the nuclear envelope disappear. Microtubules form near the centrioles and project in all directions. Spindle fibers, project toward an invisible line called the equator and overlap with fibers from opposite centrioles. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the cell in association with the spindle fibers. Some spindle fibers are attached to kinetochores in the centromere of each chromosome In anaphase, the chromatids separate, and each chromatid is then referred to as a chromosome. Thus, the chromosome number is double, and there are two identical sets of chromosomes. The chromosomes, assisted by the spindle fibers, move toward the centrioles at each end of the cell. Separation of the chromatids signals the beginning of anaphase, and, by the time anaphase has ended, the chromosomes have reached the poles In telophase, migration of each set of chromosomes is complete. The chromosomes unravel to become less distinct chromatin threads. The nuclear envelope forms from the endoplasmic reticulum. The nucleoli form, and cytokinesis continues to form two cells Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell division has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA that is identical to the DNA of the parent cell

Fig. 3.28

Interphase

1. Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is found as thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA replication occurs during interphase. Organelles, other than the nucleus, duplicate during interphase

Fig. 3.28

Prophase

2.

In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the nucleolus and the nuclear envelope disappear. Microtubules form near the centrioles and project in all directions. Spindle fibers, project toward an invisible line called the equator and overlap with fibers from opposite centrioles.
Fig. 3.28

Metaphase

3.

In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the cell in association with the spindle fibers. Some spindle fibers are attached to kinetochores in the centromere of each chromosome

Fig. 3.28

Anaphase

4.

In anaphase, the chromatids separate, and each chromatid is then referred to as a chromosome. Thus, the chromosome number is double, and there are two identical sets of chromosomes. The chromosomes, assisted by the spindle fibers, move toward the centrioles at each end of the cell. Separation of the chromatids signals the beginning of anaphase, and, by the time anaphase has ended, the chromosomes have reached the poles
Fig. 3.28

Telophase and Cytokinesis

5.

In telophase, migration of each set of chromosomes is complete. The chromosomes unravel to become less distinct chromatin threads. The nuclear envelope forms from the endoplasmic reticulum. The nucleoli form, and cytokinesis continues to form two cells
Fig. 3.28

Mitosis

6.

Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell division has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA that is identical to the DNA of the parent cell
Fig. 3.28

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is found as thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA replication occurs during interphase. Organelles, other than the nucleus, duplicate during interphase In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the nucleolus and the nuclear envelope disappear. Microtubules form near the centrioles and project in all directions. Spindle fibers, project toward an invisible line called the equator and overlap with fibers from opposite centrioles. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the cell in association with the spindle fibers. Some spindle fibers are attached to kinetochores in the centromere of each chromosome In anaphase, the chromatids separate, and each chromatid is then referred to as a chromosome. Thus, the chromosome number is double, and there are two identical sets of chromosomes. The chromosomes, assisted by the spindle fibers, move toward the centrioles at each end of the cell. Separation of the chromatids signals the beginning of anaphase, and, by the time anaphase has ended, the chromosomes have reached the poles In telophase, migration of each set of chromosomes is complete. The chromosomes unravel to become less distinct chromatin threads. The nuclear envelope forms from the endoplasmic reticulum. The nucleoli form, and cytokinesis continues to form two cells Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell division has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA that is identical to the DNA of the parent cell

Fig. 3.28

Differentiation
Process by which cells develop specialized structures and functions All the cells in an individuals body contain the same amount and type of DNA because they resulted from mitosis Differentiation results from the selective activation and inactivation of segments of DNA in each different cell type