1

Design of Control Systems

Cascade Root Locus Design

This is the first lecture devoted to the control system design. In the
previous lectures we laid the groundwork for design techniques
based on root locus analysis. At the end, root locus design will not
prove to be the best technique. That honor is reserved for the Bode
design method.

However
Root locus design is very intuitive. The root locus
provides a portrait for 0 ( K ( for all possible closed-
loop pole locations.
Proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID) control
is widely used in industrial applications. PID control is
best understood from the root locus perspective
2
Compensation
The design of a control system is concerned with the arrangement of
the system structure and the selection of a suitable components and
parameters.

A compensator is an additional component or circuit that is inserted
into a control system to compensate for a deficient performance.

Types of Compensation
Cascade compensation
Feedback compensation
Output compensation
Input compensation
3
PID Controllers
PID control consists of a proportional plus derivative (PD)
compensator cascaded with a proportional plus integral (PI)
compensator.

The purpose of the PD compensator is to improve the transient
response while maintaining the stability.

The purpose of the PI compensator is to improve the steady state
accuracy of the system without degrading the stability.

Since speed of response, accuracy, and stability are what is needed
for satisfactory response, cascading PD and PI will suffice.
4

The Characteristics of P, I, and D Controllers
Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because Kp, Ki, and Kd are dependent
of each other. In fact, changing one of these variables can change the effect of the other two.
For this reason, the table should only be used as a reference when you are determining the
values for Ki, Kp and Kd.

Response Rise Time Overshoot Settling
Time
SS Error

K
P

Decrease

Increase
Small
Change

Decrease

K
I

Decrease

Increase

Increase

Eliminate

K
D
Small
Change

Decrease

Decrease
Small
Change
5
The Simplest form of compensation is gain compensation
05 . 0
10
5 . 0 5 . 0 5 . 0 5 . 0
) (
1
0.5; 0.5 -
at be will poles loop closed the ratio damping specified the achieve that to shows
geometry Simple . 2 1/ Chose locus; root the Draw 5%; P.O : t requiremen Design
function step a error to zero exhibit will system loop - closed the 1; type is system The
system this of response transient the improve to is goal Our
) 1 (
10
) (
5 . 0 5 . 0
=
+ +
= = =
=
+
=
+ =
j j
s G
K j s
s s
s G
j s
p
p

G
c
G
p
R
-
+
6
Root Locus for Simple Gain Compensator

0.5
-1
0.5
Re (s)
Im(s)
7
Lead/Lag Compensation
Lead/Lag compensation is very similar to PD/PI, or PID control.

The lead compensator plays the same role as the PD controller,
reshaping the root locus to improve the transient response.

Lag and PI compensation are similar and have the same response: to
improve the steady state accuracy of the closed-loop system.

Both PID and lead/lag compensation can be used successfully, and
can be combined.
8
Lead Compensation Techniques Based on the Root-Locus Approach
From the performance specifications, determine the desired location for the
dominant closed-loop poles.

By drawing the root-locus plot of the uncompensated system ascertain
whether or not the gain adjustment alone can yield the desired closed-loop
poles. If not calculate the angle deficiency. This angle must be contributed
by the lead compensator.

If the compensator is required, place the zero of the phase lead network
directly below the desired root location.
Determine the pole location so that the total angle at the desired root
location is 180
o
and therefore is in the compensated root locus.

Assume the transfer function of the lead compensator.

Determine the open-loop gain of the compensated system from the
magnitude conditions.

9
Lead Compensator using the Root Locus
1 . 8
2
) 25 . 3 ( ) 23 . 2 (
;
) 6 . 3 (
) 1 (
) ( ) (
6 . 3
1
) ( ; 38 ; 142 180 ; -142 90 116 -2
-1 - at location desired the below directly r compensato the of zero the place We
2 1 as location root dominant desired a choose will We
1 ; 4
4
0.32; be should %; 35 . ; 4
) ( network, a with system this compensate to desire We
axis in the is locus root The : 0 1 ) ( 1 ; ) (
2
1
2
1
o
1 1
2
1
2
1
= =
+
+
=
+
+
= = = = + =
= =
=
= = = > s s
+
+
=
= + = + =
K
s s
s K
s G s GH
s
s
s G
z s
j - r , r
T O P s Ts
p s
z s
s G
j
s
K
s GH
s
K
s GH
c
c
o
p p
o
n
n
s
c
u u |
e
e

-1
u
p
s = -p = -3.6
10
Adding Lead Compensation
The lead compensator has the same purpose as the PD compensator:
to improve the transient response of the closed-loop system by
reshaping the root locus. The lead compensator consists of a zero and
a pole with the zero closer to the origin of the s plane than the pole. The
zero reshapes a portion of the root locus to achieve the desired
transient response. The pole is placed far enough to the left that it does
not have much influence of the portion influenced by the zero.
180 ) ( ) (
0 ;
is r compensato for the formular general The 5%; be to P.O Expect ; 2 1/
3. 3 - at poles loop - closed the place we tp, desired the achieve To
1.0s 20%; P.O : ions Specificat Design
) 1 (
10
Consider
3 3
= Z
( (
+
+
=
=
=
s s
+
=
= j s p c
c
c
p
p
s G s G
b a
b s
a) (s K
(s) G
j s
t
s s
G

11
Root Locus for Simple Gain Compensator

Re (s)
Im(s)
Closed-loop poles
3
-3
12
-b
-a
-1 0
s
s+b
s+a s+1
u
1
u
2 o |
18
) 3 ( 8 . 7
) (
8 . 7
3 10
18 1
;
18
) 3 (
) (
18 15 3
3 . 11 tan
3
3 ; 3 . 11 78.7 - 90 3; - at s Fix
7 . 78 180 ; 180
3 3
o
2 1 2 1
+
+
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ +
=
+
+
=
= + = + = = =
= + = =
+ =
s
s
s G
s
s s s
Kc
s
s K
s G
b
c
j s
c
c
o
o
o o o
|
u u | o u u | o
13

Adding a Lag Controller

A first-order lag compensator can be designed using the root locus. A lag
compensator in root locus form is given by





where the magnitude of z
o
is greater than the magnitude of p
o
. A phase-lag
compensator tends to shift the root locus to the right, which is undesirable.
For this reason, the pole and zero of a lag compensator must be placed
close together (usually near the origin) so they do not appreciably change
the transient response or stability characteristics of the system.
o
o
p s
z s
s G

= ) (
14
How does the Lag Controller Shift the Root Locus to the
Right?
Recall finding the asymptotes of the root locus that lead to the zeros at
infinity, the equation to determine the intersection of the asymptotes along
the real axis is:




When a lag compensator is added to a system, the value of this intersection
will be a smaller negative number than it was before. The net number of
zeros and poles will be the same (one zero and one pole are added), but the
added pole is a smaller negative number than the added zero. Thus, the
result of a lag compensator is that the asymptotes' intersection is moved
closer to the right half plane, and the entire root locus will be shifted to the
right.
zeros poles
zeros poles

=

o
15
Control Modes
There are many ways by which a control unit can react to an error
and supply an output for correcting elements.
The two-step mode: The controller is just a switch which is
activated by the error signal and supplies just an on-off correcting
signal. Example of such mode is the bimetallic thermostat.
The proportional mode (P): This produces a control action that is
proportional to the error. The correcting signal thus becomes
bigger the bigger the error. Therefore, the error is reduced the
amount of correction is reduced and the correcting process slows
down. A summing operational amplifier with an inverter can be
used as a proportional controller.
The derivative mode: This produces a control action that is
proportional to the rate at which the error is changing. When there
is a sudden change in the error signal the controller gives a large
correcting signal. When there is a gradual change only a small
correcting signal is produced. An operational amplifier connected
as a differentiator circuit followed by another operational amplifier
connected as an inverter make an electronic derivative controller
circuit.
16
The integral mode (I): This produces a control action that is
proportional to the integral of the error with time. Therefore, a
constant error signal will produce an increasing correcting signal.
The correction continues to increase as long as the error persists.

Combination of modes: Proportional plus derivative modes (PD),
proportional plus integral modes (PI), proportional plus integral plus
derivative modes (PID). The term three-term controller is used for
PID control.

The controller may achieve these modes by means of pneumatic
circuits, analog electronics involving operational amplifiers or by the
programming of a microprocessor or computer.
17
DC Motor Speed Modeling
The DC motor has been the workhorse in industry for many reasons including
good torque speed characteristics. It is a common actuator in control systems.
It directly provides rotary motion and, coupled with wheels or drums and
cables, can provide transitional motion. The electric circuit of the armature and
the free body diagram of the rotor are shown in the following Figure.
We develop here the transfer function of a separately excited armature
controlled DC motor.
Motor
Generator
Mechanical
energy
(T, e)


V
A

R
A
I
A

V
F

R
F


L
F

I
F

L
u

k
J motor & load
T
e
Field circuit Armature circuit
18
Physical Parameters
Electrical Resistance R= 1 O
Electrical Inductance L = 0.5 H
Input Voltage V
Electromotive Force Constant K = 0.01 nm/A
Moment of Inertia of the Rotor J = 0.01 kg.m
2
/s
2

Damping Ratio of the Mechanical System b = 0.1 Nms
Position of the Shaft u
The rotor and shaft are assumed to be rigid
The motor torque T is related to the armature current by a constant Kt
The back emf, e, is related to the rotational velocity
u
u u
u

K V Ri
dt
di
L
Ki b J
K e
i K T
e
t
= +
= +
=
=
19
Speed Control
Speed Control by Varying Circuit Resistance: The operating speed can only
be adjusted downwards by varying the external resistance, R
ext



Speed Control by Varying Excitation Flux:



Speed Control by Varying Applied Voltage: Wide range of control 25:1; fast
acceleration of high inertia loads.

Electronic Control.
( )
rad/s
2 2
| | |
e
a
ext a
a a
a a a
m
k
R R
k
Va
k
I R V +
=

=
1
2
2
1
|
|
e
e
=
m
m
20
Transfer Function
2
) )( (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
K R Ls b Js
K
V
s Ks V s I R Ls
s KI s b Js s
+ + +
=
= +
= +
u
u
u
Controller Plant
R
u

u
21
Data Measurement
Once we have identified the transfer function of the system we may
proceed to the final two phases of the design cycle, the design of a
suitable controller and the implementation of the controller on the
actual system. In the case of speed control of the DC motor, the
control will prove to be quite easy.
An important point to be highlighted here is that if we have a good
model of the plant to be controlled, and we already have identified
the parameters of the model, then the design of the controller is
easy.
Computer D/A Converter Power Amplifier
DC Motor
Oscilloscope
Armature voltage
Tachometer
22

Design Needs
The uncompensated motor may only rotate at 0.1 rad/sec with an input
voltage of 1 V. Since the most basic requirement of a motor is that it should
rotate at the desired speed, the steady-state error of the motor speed should
be less than 1%.
The other performance requirement is that the motor must accelerate to its
steady-state speed as soon as it turns on. In this case, we want it to have a
settling time of 2 seconds for example. Since a speed faster than the
reference may damage the equipment, we want to have an overshoot of less
than 5%. If we simulate the reference input (r) by a unit step input, then the
motor speed output should have:

Settling time less than 2 seconds
Overshoot less than 5%
Steady-state error less than 1%


Use the MATLAB to represent the open loop response

23
PID Design technique for DC Motor Speed Control

Design a PID controller and add it into the system.
Recall that the transfer function for a PID controller is:





See how the PID controller works in a closed-loop system using the
previous Figure. The variable (e) represents the tracking error, the
difference between the desired input value (R) and the actual output (y).
This error signal (e) will be sent to the PID controller, and the controller
computes both the derivative and the integral of this error signal.
The signal (u) just past the controller is equal to the proportional gain (Kp)
times the magnitude of the error plus the integral gain (K
i
) times the
integral of the error plus the derivative gain (K
d
) times the derivative of the
error.
s
K s K s K
s K
s
K
K
I P D
D
I
P
+ +
= + +
2
24
The PID Adjustment Steps
Use a proportional controller with a certain gain. A code should be
added to the end of m-file.
Determine the closed-loop transfer function.
See how the step response looks like.
You should get certain plot.
From the plot you may see that both the steady-state error and the
overshoot are too large.
Recall from the PID characteristics that adding an integral term will
eliminate the steady-state error and a derivative term will reduce the
overshoot. Let us try a PID controller with small K
i
and K
d
.
The settling time is too long. Let us increase K
i
to reduce the settling
time.
Large K
i
will worsen the transient response (big overshoot). Let us
increase K
d
to reduce the overshoot.
See the plot now and see if design requirements will be satisfied.
25


Root Locus Design Method for DC Motor Speed Control
Drawing the Open-Loop Root Locus

The main idea of root locus design is to find the closed-loop response
from the open-loop root locus plot. Then by adding zeros and/or
poles to the original plant, the closed-loop response can be modified.
We need the settling time and the overshoot to be as small as
possible. Large damping corresponds to points on the root locus near
the real axis. A fast response corresponds to points on the root locus
far to the left of the imaginary axis.
The system may be overdamped and the settling time will be about
one second, so the overshoot and settling time requirements could
be satisfied.
The only problem we may see from the generated plot is the steady
state error. If we increase the gain to reduce the steady-state error,
the overshoot becomes too large. We need to add a lag controller to
reduce the steady-state error.