Physical Layer: Data and Signals

01204325: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Asst. Prof. Chaiporn Jaikaeo, Ph.D. chaiporn.j@ku.ac.th http://www.cpe.ku.ac.th/~cpj Computer Engineering Department 1 Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Outline

Analog and digital data/signals Time and frequency domain views of signals Bandwidth and bit rate Transmitting digital signals as analog Theoretical data rate Signal impairment

Analog vs. Digital Data

Analog data

Data take on continuous values E.g., human voice, temperature reading Data take on discrete values E.g., text, integers

Digital data

Analog vs. Digital Signals

To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals

Analog signals

value

have an infinite number of values in a range

time

Digital signals

value

Have a limited number of values

time

Data and Signals

Analog Data
Telephone

Analog Signal

Digital Data
Modem

Analog Signal

Analog Data
Codec

Digital Signal

Digital Data
Digital transmitter

Digital Signal

Sine Waves

Simplest form of periodic signal

signal strength period T = 1/f
peak amplitude

time

General form: x(t) = Asin(2ft + )

phase / phase shift
6

Varying Sine Waves

3 2 1 0 0 -1 -2 -3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 -1 -2 3 2 1 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

A = 1, f = 1, = 0

-3

A = 2, f = 1, = 0

3 2 1 0 0 -1 -2 -3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

3 2 1 0 0 -1 -2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

A = 1, f = 2, = 0

-3

A = 1, f = 1, = /4
7

Bandwidth of a Medium
gain 1 freq ... 0 f0 3f0 5f0 7f0 9f0 f

(low-pass channel)

Transmission medium
0 f0 3f0 5f0

Digital Signals

Properties:

Bit rate number of bits per second Bit interval duration of 1 bit
amplitude

... time bit interval

9

Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four signal levels

10

Baseband transmission

Baseband transmission
Sending a digital signal over a channel without changing it to an analog signal

Baseband transmission requires a lowpass channel

11

Note

A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite bandwidth.

12

Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

13

Digital vs. Analog

Using one harmonic

Digital
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Analog
1 1 1 1

1 sec

Bit rate = 6 Digital

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

f=0 Analog
1 0 1 0

Bit rate = 6

f=3
14

Digital vs. Analog

Using more harmonics

Adding 3rd harmonic to improve quality

Digital
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Analog
1 0 1 0

Bit rate = 6

f0 = 3, fmax = 9

15

Digital vs. Analog Bandwidth

Digital bandwidth

Expressed in bits per second (bps) Expressed in Hertz (Hz)

Analog bandwidth

Bit rate and bandwidth are proportional to each other

16

Low-Pass and Band-Pass Channels

Low-pass channel
gain

f1

frequency

Band-pass channel
gain

f1

f2

frequency

17

Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass channel

18

Transmission Impairment

Attenuation Distortion Noise

19

Signal Attenuation

Attenuation Loss of energy

Signal strength falls off with distance

Transmission medium

Attenuation depends on medium Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency

20

Relative Signal Strength

Measured in Decibel (dB)

dB = 10 log10 (P2/P1)

P1 and P2 are signal powers at points 1 and 2, respectively

Point 1 Point 2

Positive dB signal is amplified (gains strength) Negative dB signal is attenuated (loses strength)
21

Signal Distortion

Distortion Change in signal shape

Only happens in guided media

Propagation velocity varies with frequency

22

Noise

Noise Undesirable signals added between the transmitter and the receiver

Types of noise

Thermal

Due to random motion of electrons in a wire

23

Noise

Types of noise (contd)

Crosstalk

Signal from one line picked up by another

Wire 1

Wire 2

Impulse
Irregular pulses or spikes E.g., lightning Short duration High amplitude

24

Data Rate: Noiseless Channels

Nyquist Theorem
Bit Rate = 2 Bandwidth log2L

Bit rate in bps Bandwidth in Hz L number of signal levels

Harry Nyquist (1889-1976)

25

Data Rate: Noisy Channels

Shannon Capacity
Capacity = Bandwidth log2(1+SNR)

Capacity (maximum bit rate) in bps Bandwidth in Hz Claude Elwood Shannon SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio (1916-2001)

26

Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.

27

Network Performance

Bandwidth

Hertz Bits per second (bps) Actual data rate Time it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the destination

Throughput

Latency (delay)

28

Latency

Composed of

Propagation time Transmission time Queuing time Processing time

Entire message propagation time

transmission time
29

Latency
Sender Receiver First bit leaves First bit arrives Data bits Last bit leaves Last bit arrives Transmission time Propagation time

Time

Time
30

Bandwidth-Delay Product

The link is seen as a pipe

Cross section = bandwidth Length = delay

Bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link

31

Figure Filling the link with bits for case 1

32

Summary

Data need to take form of signal to be transmitted Frequency domain representation of signal allows easier analysis

Fourier analysis

Medium's bandwidth limits certain frequencies to pass Bit rate is proportional to bandwidth Signals get impaired by attenuation, distortion, and noise
33